Parliamentary republic
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A parliamentary republic is a republic that operates under a parliamentary system of government where the executive branch (called the government in such systems) derives its legitimacy from and is accountable to the legislature (the parliament). Both executive and legislative powers are ultimately held within the parliament (fusion of powers) as most commonly the government is a subset of the members of the parliament (as opposed to congressional systems, where the congress - the legislature - is part of the government in the wider sense of the word).
There are a number of variations of parliamentary republics. Most have a clear differentiation between the head of government and the head of state, with the head of government holding real power and the head of state being a ceremonial position, similar to constitutional monarchies. In some countries the head of state has reserve powers to use at their discretion as a non-partisan "referee" of the political process.[1][2] Some parliamentary republics (parliamentary republics with an executive presidency) have combined the roles of head of state and head of government, like presidential systems, but with a dependency upon parliamentary confidence.
In general, parliamentary republics grant the highest sovereign powers to the parliament. However, much like in monarchies, the head of state occupies an important formal role on the top of the legal system. The head of state, called a president (or president of the republic) in parliamentary republics, is usually elected directly by popular vote. However, there are some notable exceptions, where the president is elected by a special assembly or electoral college (e.g. Germany) or by members of parliament (e.g. Italy) in a special process.
Fusion of powers
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Parliamentary systems: Head of government is elected or nominated by and accountable to the legislature.Constitutional monarchy with a ceremonial monarchSemi-constitutional monarchy: Monarch holds significant executive or legislative power but is still restricted by the constitution.Parliamentary republic with a ceremonial president
Presidential system: Head of government (president) is popularly elected and independent of the legislature.Presidential republicTheocratic presidential republic: Supreme leader is highest authority; popularly elected president still exists.
Hybrid systems:Semi-presidential republic: Executive president is independent of the legislature; head of government is appointed by the president and is accountable to the legislature.Assembly-independent republic: Head of government (president or directory) is elected by the legislature, but is not accountable to it.
Other systems:Islamic theocracy: Supreme leader holds unlimited political and religious power; state and faith are a single institution.Absolute monarchy: Monarch has unlimited power.One-party state: Power is constitutionally linked to a single political party.Provisional government: Current regime is temporary or transitional; no permanent constitution.Military junta: Committee of military leaders controls the government; constitutional provisions are suspended.Places without governments.
Note: this chart represents the de jure systems of government, not the de facto degree of democracy.
In parliamentary republics, both executive and legislative powers are primarily held within the parliament.[3]
In contrast to republics operating under either the presidential system or the semi-presidential system, the head of state usually does not have executive powers as an executive president would (some may have reserve powers or additional, but limited, powers), because many of those powers have been granted to a head of government (usually called a prime minister).[1][2]
In a parliamentary republic with a head of state whose tenure is dependent on parliament, the head of government and head of state can form one office (as in Botswana, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, and South Africa), but the president is still selected in much the same way as the prime minister is in most Westminster systems. This usually means that they are the leader of the largest party or coalition of parties in parliament.
In some cases, the president can legally have executive powers granted to them to undertake the day-to-day running of government (as in Iceland) but by convention, they either do not use these powers or they use them only to give effect to the advice of the parliament or head of government. Some parliamentary republics could therefore be seen as following the semi-presidential system but operating under a parliamentary system.[3]
Historical development
Typically, parliamentary republics are states that were previously constitutional monarchies with a parliamentary system.[4]
Following the defeat of Napoleon III in the Franco-Prussian War, France again became a republic – the French Third Republic – in 1870. The President of the Third Republic had significantly less executive powers than those of the previous two republics had. The Third Republic lasted until the invasion of France by Nazi Germany in 1940. Following the end of the war, the French Fourth Republic was constituted along similar lines in 1946. The Fourth Republic saw an era of great economic growth in France and the rebuilding of the nation's social institutions and industry after the war, and played an important part in the development of the process of European integration, which changed the continent permanently. Some attempts were made to strengthen the executive branch of government to prevent the unstable situation that had existed before the war, but the instability remained and the Fourth Republic saw frequent changes in government – there were 20 governments in ten years. Additionally, the government proved unable to make effective decisions regarding decolonization. As a result, the Fourth Republic collapsed and Charles de Gaulle was given power to rule by decree, subsequently legitimized by approval of a new constitution in a referendum on 28 September 1958, which led to the establishment of the French Fifth Republic in 1959.
Commonwealth of Nations
Since the London Declaration of 29 April 1949 (just weeks after Ireland declared itself a republic and excluded itself from the Commonwealth), republics have been admitted as members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
In the case of many republics in the Commonwealth of Nations, it was common for the Sovereign, formerly represented by a Governor-General, to be replaced by a non-executive head of state. This was the case in South Africa (which ceased to be a member of the Commonwealth immediately upon becoming a republic, and later transitioned to having an executive presidency), Malta, Trinidad and Tobago, India, Vanuatu and since 30 November 2021, Barbados. In many of these examples, the last Governor-General became the first president. Such was the case with Sri Lanka and Pakistan.
Other states became parliamentary republics upon gaining independence.
List of modern parliamentary republics and related systems
| Full parliamentary republics | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country/territory | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of Albania.svg Albania | Bajram Begaj | Parliament, by three-fifths majority | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Armenia.svg Armenia | Vahagn Khachaturyan | Parliament, by absolute majority | Unicameral | 2018[note 1] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Austria.svg Austria | Alexander Van der Bellen | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1945 | One-party state (as part of Nazi Germany, see Anschluss) | De jure semi-presidential republic[5] operating as a full parliamentary republic.[6] |
| File:Flag of Bangladesh.svg Bangladesh | Hafiz Uddin Ahmad | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 2] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Barbados.svg Barbados | Jeffrey Bostic | Parliament, by two-thirds majority if there is no joint nomination | Bicameral | 2021 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm) | |
| File:Flag of Bosnia and Herzegovina.svg Bosnia and Herzegovina | Denis Bećirović Željka Cvijanović Željko Komšić |
Direct election of collective head of state, by first-past-the-post vote | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| Bulgaria Bulgaria | Iliana Iotova | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| Croatia Croatia | Zoran Milanović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000 | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of the Czech Republic.svg Czech Republic | Petr Pavel | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2013; previously parliament, by majority) | Bicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| File:Flag of Dominica.svg Dominica | Sylvanie Burton | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1978 | Associated state of the United Kingdom | |
| File:Flag of Estonia.svg Estonia | Alar Karis | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1991[note 3] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| File:Flag of Ethiopia.svg Ethiopia | Taye Atske Selassie | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Fiji.svg Fiji | Naiqama Lalabalavu | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2014 | Military dictatorship | |
| File:Flag of Finland.svg Finland | Alexander Stubb | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 2000[note 4] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Georgia.svg Georgia | Mikheil Kavelashvili (disputed)[a] | Parliament and regional delegates, by absolute majority (since 2024; previously direct election, by two-round system) | Unicameral | 2018[note 5] | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Germany.svg Germany | Frank-Walter Steinmeier | Federal Convention (Bundestag and state delegates[note 6]), by absolute majority[7] | Two unicameral institutions[note 7][8] | 1949[note 8] | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Greece.svg Greece | Konstantinos Tasoulas | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1975 | Military dictatorship; constitutional monarchy | |
| File:Flag of Hungary.svg Hungary | Ágnes Forsthoffer (Acting) | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1990 | One-party state (Hungarian People's Republic) | |
| File:Flag of Iceland.svg Iceland | Halla Tómasdóttir | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1944 | Constitutional monarchy (in a personal union with Denmark) | |
| File:Flag of India.svg India | Droupadi Murmu | Parliament and state legislature, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1950 | Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) | |
| File:Flag of Iraq.svg Iraq | Nizar Amidi | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral[note 9] | 2005 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Ireland.svg Ireland | Catherine Connolly | Direct election, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 1949[note 10] | To 1936: Constitutional monarchy (British Dominion) 1936–1949: ambiguous |
|
| File:Flag of Israel.svg Israel | Isaac Herzog | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-parliamentary republic | |
| File:Flag of Italy.svg Italy | Sergio Mattarella | Parliament and region delegates, by two-thirds majority; by absolute majority, starting from the fourth ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first three ballots | Bicameral | 1946 | Constitutional monarchy | Prime Minister is dependent on the confidence of both of the houses of Parliament. |
| File:Flag of Kosovo.svg Kosovo | Albulena Haxhiu (Acting) | Parliament, by two-thirds majority; by a simple majority, at the third ballot, if no candidate achieves the aforementioned majority in the first two ballots | Unicameral | 2008 | UN-administered Kosovo (informally part of Serbia) | |
| File:Flag of Latvia.svg Latvia | Edgars Rinkēvičs | Parliament | Unicameral | 1991[note 11] | Presidential republic, thereafter occupied by a one-party state | |
| File:Flag of Lebanon.svg Lebanon | Joseph Aoun | Parliament | Unicameral | 1941 | Protectorate (French mandate of Lebanon) | |
| File:Flag of Malta.svg Malta | Myriam Spiteri Debono | Parliament, by two-thirds majority | Unicameral | 1974 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[9])[10] | |
| File:Flag of Mauritius.svg Mauritius | Dharam Gokhool | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1992 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[11][12])[10] | |
| File:Flag of Moldova.svg Moldova | Maia Sandu | Direct election, by two-round system (since 2016; previously by parliament, by three-fifths majority) |
Unicameral | 2001 | Semi-presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Montenegro.svg Montenegro | Jakov Milatović | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1992 | One-party state (Part of Yugoslavia, and after Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| File:Flag of Nepal.svg Nepal | Ram Chandra Poudel | Parliament and state legislators | Bicameral[13] | 2008[note 12] | Constitutional monarchy | |
| File:Flag of North Macedonia.svg North Macedonia | Gordana Siljanovska-Davkova | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| File:Flag of Pakistan.svg Pakistan | Asif Ali Zardari | Parliament and state legislators, by instant-runoff vote | Bicameral | 2010[14][15] | Assembly-independent republic | |
| File:Flag of Poland.svg Poland | Karol Nawrocki | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1989 | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Samoa.svg Samoa | Tuimalealiifano Va'aletoa Sualauvi II | Parliament | Unicameral | 1960 | Trust Territory of New Zealand | |
| File:Flag of Serbia.svg Serbia | Aleksandar Vučić | Direct election, by two-round system | Unicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia, and later Serbia and Montenegro) | |
| File:Flag of Singapore.svg Singapore | Tharman Shanmugaratnam | Direct election (since 1993) | Unicameral | 1965 | State of Malaysia | |
| File:Flag of Slovakia.svg Slovakia | Peter Pellegrini | Direct election, by two-round system (since 1999; previously by parliament) | Unicameral | 1993 | Parliamentary Republic (part of Czechoslovakia) | |
| File:Flag of Slovenia.svg Slovenia | Nataša Pirc Musar | Direct election, by two-round system | Bicameral | 1991 | One-party state (part of Yugoslavia) | |
| File:Flag of Somalia.svg Somalia | Hassan Sheikh Mohamud | Parliament | Bicameral | 2012[note 13] | One-party state | |
| File:Flag of Togo (3-2).svg Togo | Jean-Lucien Savi de Tové | Parliament | Bicameral | 2024 | Presidential republic | |
| File:Flag of Trinidad and Tobago.svg Trinidad and Tobago | Christine Kangaloo | Parliament | Bicameral | 1976 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[16])[10] | |
| File:Flag of Vanuatu.svg Vanuatu | Nikenike Vurobaravu | Parliament and regional council presidents, by majority | Unicameral | 1980 | British–French condominium (New Hebrides) | |
| Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency | ||||||
| Country | Head of state | Head of state elected by | Cameral structure | Parliamentary republic with an executive presidency adopted | Previous government form | Notes |
| File:Flag of Botswana.svg Botswana | Duma Boko | Parliament, by majority | Unicameral | 1966 | British protectorate (Bechuanaland Protectorate) | |
| File:Flag of Kiribati.svg Kiribati | Taneti Maamau | Direct election, by first-past-the-post vote | Unicameral | 1979 | Protectorate | Following a general election, by which citizens elect the members of the House of Assembly, members select from their midst "not less than 3 nor more than 4 candidates" for the presidency. No other person may stand as candidate. The citizens of Kiribati then elect the president from among the proposed candidates with first-past-the-post voting.[17] |
| File:Flag of Guyana.svg Guyana | Irfaan Ali | Semi-direct election, by first-past-the-post vote[18] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1980 | Full parliamentary republic | |
| File:Flag of the Marshall Islands.svg Marshall Islands | Hilda Heine | Parliament | Bicameral | 1979 | UN Trust Territory (part of Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands) | |
| File:Flag of Nauru.svg Nauru | David Adeang | Parliament | Unicameral | 1968 | UN Trusteeship between Australia, New Zealand, and the United Kingdom. | |
| File:Flag of South Africa.svg South Africa | Cyril Ramaphosa | Parliament, by majority | Bicameral | 1961 | Constitutional monarchy (Commonwealth realm[19][20][21])[10] | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1961–1984; adopted an executive presidency in 1984. |
| File:Flag of Suriname.svg Suriname | Jennifer Geerlings-Simons | Parliament[22] (vacancies are filled by Parliament, by majority) | Unicameral | 1987 | Full parliamentary republic | Was a full parliamentary republic from 1975–1980; adopted an executive presidency in 1987 after the military coup period from 1980–1987, when the president was given executive powers and the prime minister title became vice-president. |
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List of former parliamentary republics and related systems
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See also
- List of countries by system of government
- Constitutional monarchy
- Parliamentary system
- Republic
- Republicanism
- Semi-presidential system
- Semi-parliamentary system
- Parliamentary republics with an executive presidency
Notes
- ↑ Changed after the 2015 referendum.
- ↑ Was, previously, a parliamentary republic between 1972 and 1975.
- ↑ Estonia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1918 and 1934 when the system was changed to a presidential system which was thereafter overthrown by a coup d'état. In 1938, Estonia finally adopted a presidential system and in June 1940 was illegally occupied by the Soviet Union. Became a parliamentary republic again in 1990 with the implementation of an interim period to restore full independence, which was achieved by 1991.
- ↑ Formerly a semi-presidential republic, it is now a parliamentary republic according to David Arter, First Chair of Politics at Aberdeen University. In his "Scandinavian Politics Today" (Manchester University Press, revised 2008 ISBN 9780719078538), he quotes Nousiainen, Jaakko (June 2001). "From semi-presidentialism to parliamentary government: political and constitutional developments in Finland". Scandinavian Political Studies. 24 (2): 95–109. doi:10.1111/1467-9477.00048. as follows: "There are hardly any grounds for the epithet 'semi-presidential'." Arter's own conclusions are only slightly more nuanced: "The adoption of a new constitution on 1 March 2000 meant that Finland was no longer a case of semi-presidential government other than in the minimalist sense of a situation where a popularly elected fixed-term president exists alongside a prime minister and cabinet who are responsible to parliament (Elgie 2004: 317)". According to the Finnish Constitution, the president has no possibility to rule the government without the ministerial approval, and does not have the power to dissolve the parliament under his or her own desire. Finland is actually represented by its prime minister, and not by its president, in the Council of the Heads of State and Government of the European Union. The 2012 constitutional amendments reduced the powers of the president even further.
- ↑ "Salome Zurabishvili Wins Georgia Presidential Runoff". The New York Times. The Associated Press. 29 November 2018. Retrieved 3 January 2019.
- ↑ The Federal Convention is made up of all the members of the Bundestag. The other half is distributed to the 16 Länder, that then each elect Members to elect the President of Germany. Often German celebrities are chosen by the state parliaments.
- ↑ The Bundesrat is sometimes referred to as an upper chamber of the German legislature. This is technically incorrect, since the German Constitution defines the Bundestag and Bundesrat as two separate legislative institutions. It describes the Bundesrat as the constitutional organ which is representing the 16 Länder (States) of Germany. Hence, the federal legislature of Germany consists of two unicameral legislative institutions, not one bicameral parliament. However the Federal Constitutional Court itself referred to the Bundesrat in the English translation of this decision.
- ↑ In the case of the former West German states, including former West Berlin, the previous one-party state is Nazi Germany, but in the case of the New Länder and former East Berlin it is East Germany. German reunification took place on 3 October 1990, when the five re-established states of the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) joined the Federal Republic of Germany, and Berlin was united into a single city-state. Therefore, this date applies to today's Federal Republic of Germany as a whole, although the area of former East Germany was no part of that parliamentary republic until 1990.
- ↑ Officially bicameral, upper house never entered into functions, to present day.
- ↑ The head of state was ambiguous from 1936 until the Republic of Ireland Act came into force on 18 April 1949. A minority of Irish republicans assert that the Irish Republic proclaimed in 1919 is still extant.
- ↑ Latvia was previously a parliamentary republic between 1921 and 1934 when the then prime minister Kārlis Ulmanis took power in a coup d'état. In June 1940 Latvia was occupied and annexed by the Soviet Union.
- ↑ Under a transitional government between 2006 and 2015; this Transitional Government was responsible to an elected Constituent Assembly, which resolved to establish a republic in 2008.
- ↑ Had a transitional government between 1991 and 2012.
- ↑ Kavelashvili's election is contested by outgoing President Salome Zourabichvili, all large opposition parties, as well as numerous watchdogs and constitutional experts, who question the legitimacy of the 2024 Georgian parliamentary election that determined the composition of the electoral college for the presidential election.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 Twomey, Anne. "Australian politics explainer: Gough Whitlam's dismissal as prime minister". The Conversation. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ↑ 2.0 2.1 "The President's Role". The Times of India. Retrieved 18 October 2018.
- ↑ 3.0 3.1 Michael Auerbach (2024). "Parliamentary Republic". EBSCO. Retrieved 23 December 2025.
- ↑ Arend Lijphart, ed. (1992). Parliamentary versus presidential government. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-878044-1.
- ↑ Shugart, Matthew Søberg (2005). "Semi-Presidential Systems: Dual Executive And Mixed Authority Patterns" (PDF). French Politics. 3 (3): 323–351. doi:10.1057/palgrave.fp.8200087. ISSN 1476-3419. Retrieved 2024-12-16.
- ↑ Müller, Wolfgang C. (1999-09-02). "Austria". Semi-Presidentialism in Europe. Oxford University PressOxford. pp. 22–47. doi:10.1093/0198293860.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-829386-6.
- ↑ "Art 54 GG - Einzelnorm". www.gesetze-im-internet.de. Retrieved 2023-09-20.
- ↑ "Zusammensetzung des Bundesrates". Bundesrat (in Deutsch). Retrieved 2023-09-20.
- ↑ "Malta: Heads of State: 1964-1974". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 10.3 "British Monarch's Titles: 1867-2018". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ "Mauritius: Heads of State: 1968-1992". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ Paxton, John (1984). The Statesman's Year-Book 1984-85. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-333-34731-7. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ Constitution of Nepal Archived December 23, 2015, at the Wayback Machine
- ↑ Kiran Khalid (9 April 2010). "Pakistan lawmakers approve weakening of presidential powers". CNN. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
- ↑ "'18th Amendment to restore Constitution'". Nation.com.pk. 11 April 2010. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2010.
- ↑ "Trinidad and Tobago: Heads of State: 1962-1976". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ "Parliament of Kiribati - Constitution". 2009-04-16. Archived from the original on 2009-04-16. Retrieved 2023-08-25.
- ↑ Every list of candidates for Parliament must also have a candidate for President, and the having the most votes automatically has its candidate elected President
- ↑ "South Africa: Heads of State: 1910-1961". Archontology.org. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ Carlin, John (31 May 1994). "South Africa returns to the Commonwealth fold". The Independent. Archived from the original on 2022-05-25. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ "Secession Talked by Some Anti-Republicans". Saskatoon Star-Phoenix. 11 October 1960. Retrieved 18 February 2018.
- ↑ President must have 2/3rd majority vote in parliament. Voting happens twice if there is no majority vote at the first vote for a candidate. If no 2/3rd majority vote after second vote, then parliament moves this to the VVV (Vereenigde Volksvergadering, where all the members of Parliament and district and resort counsel members will vote for the president. Majority vote decides who becomes president.
- ↑ Esengeldiev, Almaz. "Kyrgyzstan's 2016 Constitutional Referendum". Freedom House. Retrieved 2023-10-16.