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Francis Drake's expedition of 1572–1573

Coordinates: 13°N 79°W / 13°N 79°W / 13; -79
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Drake's expedition of 1572–1573
Date24 May 1572 – 6 August 1573 (1572-05-24 – 1573-08-06)
Location
Caribbean
13°N 79°W / 13°N 79°W / 13; -79
Result Anglo-French privateer victory
Belligerents
Commanders and leaders
  • Luís de Rojas[iv]
  • Francisco Bahamonde de Lugo[iv]
  • Álvaro de Mendoza
  • Martín de Mendoza
  • Antonio Juárez de la Concha
  • Jorge Nuñez de Prado
  • Juan Juárez de Castilla
  • Nicolás López
  • Cristóbal Monte
  • Anton Couto
Units involved
  • Santa Catalina[xi]
  • Various infantry units
  • Various naval units
Strength
203 men[xii] undetermined[xiii]
Casualties and losses
  • > 4 killed
  • > 30 deaths (of illness)
  • various wounded
  • 1 to 3 detained
  • 11 to 14 killed
  • various wounded
  • > 14 vessels seized[xiv]
  • > 6 settlements raided
  • c. 100,000 pesos in gold lost

Elizabethan sea dog Sir Francis Drake undertook an unauthorised privateering expedition to the Spanish Main, in what is now the western and southern Caribbean, in 1572 and 1573, driven by the exorbitant success of his prior visit in 1571. The English sea captain embarked from Plymouth in May 1572, and returned in August 1573, laden with treasure worth some £20,000 or more, most of it secured during a joint ambush, with French corsair Guillaume Le Testu and Cimarron chief Pedro Mandingo, of the Spanish silver train as it crossed the isthmus along the Camino Real to Nombre de Dios in April 1573. The voyage was mainly spent on the shores and waters of the Main, though, rather than upcountry, as the pirates most often went about raiding coastal settlements and seizing merchant vessels, from as far east as Curaçao, off Spanish Venezuela, to as far west and north as either the Mosquito Shore (in Veragua) or Bonacca (off Spanish Honduras). The undertaking cost Drake more than half his crew, largely due to some tropical disease, including his brothers John and Joseph Drake. It also resulted in the death of Le Testu, and in Spanish retaliation against the Cimarrons near Panama.

This voyage is deemed[by whom?] a precursor to hostilities of the subsequent Anglo-Spanish War of 1585–1604. It is considered Drake's first independent excursion by specialist historian Irene A. Wright, and thought to have involved a couple of English firsts, such as the first sighting of the South Sea by any Englishman, and the earliest cruise in Honduran waters by any English pirate.

Background

In 1571, Francis Drake returned to Plymouth after what American historian Irene A. Wright reckons was the sea dog's fifth voyage to the West Indies. This trip proved wildly successful for Drake and his crew, profiting them over £100,000 (worth some £23.82 million today[2]), a good portion of which may have been in plunder from Nombre de Dios, whose capture Wright suspects had been the primary objective. Naturally, the captain made haste in making preparations for a return (sixth) expedition to the Caribbean. He was soon joined by his brothers John and Joseph Drake, and eventually they had acquired, outfitted and manned the light ships Pascha and Swan for their crossing.[6]

Expedition

In 1572, the Pascha and Swan embarked from Plymouth in late May, and sighted southern Dominica on 29 June. Being in some need of provisions, Drake took a day or two to water the ships here, and on 1 July set course for their intended destination, a small secluded cove in the Darien Gap, some 35 leagues across the gulf from Tolu, known to the captain as Port Pheasant and identified in literature as Zapzurro Cove.[7] They made landfall here in eleven days, and were next joined by James Raunce (in his barque of 30 crew) on 13 July.[10]

Nombre de Dios, 1572

At Port Pheasant, Drake and Raunce's first order of business was to assemble the former's small pinnaces Lion, Bear and Minion (brought in dismantled kits from Plymouth), and to erect a rude log fort.[8]

On 20 July, with the fort and pinnaces completed, the Drake–Raunce flotilla set sail for Isla de Pinos, off the port of Nombre de Dios,[11] where they sighted and seized two Spanish frigates. The frigates' (enslaved) sailors brought the privateers up to date with fresh intelligence regarding the said port, whereupon Drake (with 53 of his men aboard the three pinnaces) and Raunce (with 20 of his men aboard a Spanish prize shallop) carried on to Nombre de Dios, making landfall in the evening of 29 July.[13]

At 3:00 am that night, the men stole into the Spanish port on rowboats, but were soon discovered by a 60-ton Spanish merchantman in the harbour. The privateers, nonetheless, managed a quiet landing, and took the town's six-gun battery without opposition. They now began dismounting its ordnance, but raised a bit more ruckus than expected, and thereby roused some of the closer Spanish vecinos. At this point, the Spanish rang their warning bells and beat their war drums, jolting all vecinos to Nombre de Dios's defence, whereupon Drake and Raunce split their company. A dozen men were left on shore to guard their retreat, whilst the rest carried on to the villa's plaza, where John Oxenham and 16 others were to surreptitously circle behind it as Drake and Raunce led the rest (46 men) in a boisterous parade up the main thoroughfare to the plaza. The latter were there greeted by armed vecinos who opposed them with "a jolly hot volley of shot", but the Spanish were eventually defeated and scattered. Drake and Raunce, then, captured Nombre de Dios and set out to plunder it (the treasury, in particular), but a sudden rainstorm drenched the men's match and powder, whilst at the same time, Drake fainted from loss of blood, having sustained a gunshot during the earlier Spanish volley. Consequently, the privateers rather made a hasty retreat to Bastimentos, a nearby island to the north-east, at daybreak on 30 July.[17]

Spanish Main, 1572

Drake was still recuperating from the said skirmish in Bastimentos by 6 August, when Raunce took his leave. As he was in fighting shape within the week, the captain (with his 73 men, including Oxenham) now set out to the Spanish Main,[xv] and sighted Carthagena on the evening of 13 August. That night, they commandeered the Pasha, a 240-ton Spanish merchantman, and followed this by seizing two other Spanish merchant ships the next day. As the crew were now stretched thin across two ships, three pinnaces, and three Spanish prizes, Drake burnt one of the prizes, and scuttled the Swan.[22]

Shortly thereafter, the flotilla anchored in the Gulf of San Blas, just off a point christened Port Plenty[xvi] by Drake. The men disembarked and set up camp here. From this base, the privateers spent the next five or six weeks raiding settlements along the Main, as far east as Santa Marta, just across the bay from the Magdalena River, whilst John Drake endeavoured to befriend the nearby Cimarrons.[25]

By 24 September, John had secured an alliance with the Cimarrons, so Drake now relocated their camp to some undetermined site nearby, likewise dubbed Port Plenty, and spent the next two weeks fortifying it. On 7 October, the privateers were once more cruising off Carthagena. On 17 October, Oxenham and the Swan seized a 50-ton Spanish barque, marooning her crew of ten men and five slaves. On 20 October, the privateers intercepted two Spanish merchants (58 and 12 tons), and likewise stranded their crews. Drake was first opposed on the dawn of 22 October, when Carthagenan authorities finally sent two armed frigates to engage and capture him. The Spanish engaged the privateers but, in the end, could not corner their vessels nor capture the crewmen. Drake nonetheless quit Carthagena on 3 November, and set off due north-east to the Magdalena, to restock their now-dangerously dwindling provisions.[28]

The privateers reached the Magdalena on 5 November, but soon discovered that its settlements had been deserted and the livestock driven inland (Spanish authorities having forwarned the vecinos). They carried on east to Santa Marta, arriving within a week. Here, they also found the Spanish at the ready for them, as they were prevented from watering by hidden marksmen on shore. On 12 November, the Englishmen captured a 90-ton Spanish supply ship laden with victuals, and held the crew for one day. They next set for Curaçao, landing there on 13 November. A couple of days later, Drake sent Oxenham (on the Minion) ahead to Port Plenty, to advise the men left behind of his imminent return, while he scoured the Main on his own pinnace and Spanish prize. Having refreshed themselves for a few days, Drake now renewed his raids along the Main, while the Minion arrived at home base.[29]

Drake followed Oxenham to Port Plenty within the fortnight. Upon his 27 November arrival, he discovered his brother John had died.[30] Drake now decided to postpone further raids, so as to renew his efforts upon the Spanish treasure train the coming year. His remaining brother, Joseph, succumbed to a fatal tropical fever that December.[31]

Venta Cruces, 1573

On 30 January, having been apprised of the Spanish plate fleet's arrival by Cimarron allies, the Lion was despatched to reconnoitre the shipping off Nombre de Dios, during which cruise she intercepted a Spanish frigate in the harbour, whose crew confirmed the Cimarrons' intelligence. Consequently, on 3 February, Drake and Oxenham (with 16 Englishmen) and chief Pedro Mandingo (with 30 Cimarron men) trudged south through the hills and jungle of the Chagres Highlands, across the isthmus to the South Sea port of Panama, so as to intercept the treasure train expected to soon head out due north of there, via either the Camino Real or Las Cruces Trail. On 14 February, the party finally sighted Panama, whereupon a Cimarron in disguise slipped into the city, returning that evening with news of the impending arrival of a 14-mule train from Lima, bound for Nombre de Dios via Venta Cruces.[xvii] With the route thus confirmed, Drake now headed to the Las Cruces Trail, hoping to ambush the train as it approached the Chagres River, but an unrelated Spanish traveller on the trail soon discovered the trap (upon coming across a drunken crewman, Robert Pike) and warned the authorities, who naturally stalled the train. The privateers nonetheless managed to seize a few Spanish silver-loaded mules, after which they made a hasty retreat to Venta Cruces, which they easily occupied for some time. They returned to Port Plenty on 22 February.[35]

Veragua, 1573

Undaunted by the unexpected shortfall in treasure, Drake determined to supplement their booty by cruising off Veragua[xviii] (aboard the Minion) from late February, desisting only on 19 March, after having seized a Spanish frigate and pressed her Genoese pilot. In the meantime, Oxenham (in the Bear) set out on his own cruise from Port Plenty, during which he hijacked a well-provisioned Spanish frigate out of Tolu. He returned to camp by 21 March, at which point their third pinnace (the Lion) had to be scuttled "for lack of men".[37]

Sometime that February, an unidentified group of 13 Englishmen (on a small frigate) seized four Spanish merchant frigates off the Desaguadero, at the mouth of the San Juan River. They were later heard of landing a frigate, pinnace and skiff at Bonacca, in the afternoon of Holy Thursday, to which island they were brought by a Portuguese (Antonio Vaez) and two Spanish men. By the time Truxillo's authorities despatched 40 soldiers (on a small ship) to capture the pirates, the latter had already departed, reportedly "steering a northerly course", though the English had apparently threatened to pillage Golfo Dulce (west of Bonacca). Wright reckons that this party may very well have been Drake's or Oxenham's.[39]

Whatever the case, Drake and Oxenham were back in Port Plenty by 22 March, when they celebrated Easter in their home base. On Easter Monday, Drake ventured out, aboard his Spanish prize and the Bear. On 25 March, they chanced upon Guillaume Le Testu (and his 70 men aboard the Havre, an 80-ton ship),[41] who agreed to consort with Drake and the Cimarrons for a renewed attempt at finally seizing all of the Spanish silver train.[45]

Nombre de Dios, 1573

On 31 March, Drake (with 20 Englishmen), Le Testu (with some 20 Frenchmen) and Mandingo (with a number of Cimarron men) rendezvoused at the mouth of the San Francisco River, from where they advanced towards Nombre de Dios, to intercept the Spanish treasure train heading north along the Camino Real. This time, the privateers' trap was not discovered, such that the unsuspecting train (of some 160 plate-laden mules and 45 armed guards) fell right into the ambush when they passed by the following morning of 1 April. The Spanish naturally engaged the raiders, killing some and wounding others (including Le Testu) in the process, but were eventually subdued and driven off, leaving nearly 30 tons of silver and gold for the taking. The triumphant pirates could not transport that much plate, though, and fearing Spanish reinforcements, made a hasty retreat with only half the treasure, having hid the other half and entrusted it to Le Testu (who remained behind with two of his men) for later retrieval. Drake and Mandingo led their crews (and all but three of the surviving Frenchmen) back to the San Francisco rendezvous, which they reached on 3 April, where they found seven Spanish pinnaces but none of their own vessels (one Spanish prize and the Minion and Bear had been blown some 12 miles off to the west). Drake and three "brave companions" were forced to venture out (in a shoddy raft) to retrieve the pinnaces, which they did by nightfall. Drake now took everyone to Port Plenty, where the carted booty (some 15 tons of plate) was divided and each contingent parted ways.[49]

A relief party, however, as not sent to Le Testu (and the hidden treasure) until about the middle of April, when Oxenham and Thomas Sherwell made the trek back, with 10 Englishmen and 16 Cimarrons. They came upon a single Frenchman only, who informed them that Le Testu and the other crewman, along with most of the circa 15 tons of plate, had long since been taken by the Spanish,[50] who had returned later on the day of the ambush (1 April) and discovered their hiding spot. After a survey of the area, which uncovered 13 silver bars and a few golden quoits rings left behind, Oxenham and Sherwell rescued the Frenchman and returned to Port Plenty.[46] All in all, the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography reckons this raid alone netted the Englishmen at least £20,000.[51]

Return

Drake finally departed Port Plenty in late April, now with a crew of 30 men.[53] They were provisioned at the Magdalena (with 250 river turtles and a laden Spanish merchantman), and set anchor at Plymouth on 9 August 1573, thus bringing their Caribbean expedition to an end.[56]

Timeline

The following is an abbreviated timeline of Drake's expedition as detailed above.[61]

  • 24 May 1572: Drake (with 73 men in the Pascha and Swan) departs from Plymouth.
  • 29 June 1572: Drake (with 73 men in the Pascha and Swan) arrives in Dominica, and gets provisions.
  • 1 July 1572: Drake (with 73 men in the Pascha and Swan) departs from Dominica.
  • 12 July 1572: Drake (with 73 men in the Pascha and Swan) arrives in Port Pheasant, and assembles the Lion, Bear and Minion pinnaces.
  • 13 July 1572: Raunce (with 30 men in a barque and Spanish shallop) arrives in Port Pheasant.
  • 14 July 1572: Drake cruises near Port Pheasant, and seizes the Santa Catalina and detains her captain (Couto) and crew for 40 days.
  • 20 July 1572–28 July 1572: Drake (with 53 men in the Lion, Bear and Minion) and Raunce (with 20 men in a Spanish shallop) cruise near Isle of Pinos, and seize two Spanish frigates.
  • 29 July 1572–30 July 1572: Drake (with 53 men in the Lion, Bear and Minion) and Raunce (with 20 men in a Spanish shallop) sack Nombre de Dios, and seize merchandise, but are opposed by the Spanish (fatal casualties on both sides[62]).
  • 6 August 1572: Raunce (with 30 men in a barque and Spanish shallop) departs from Port Pheasant.
  • 13 August 1572: Drake (in the Pascha, Swan, Lion, Bear and Minion) cruises off the Main, and seizes a Spanish ship (240 ton).
  • 14 August 1572: Drake cruises off the Main, and seizes two Spanish frigates, but burns one of them, and scuttles the Swan.
  • 15 August 1572: Drake (in the Pascha, Lion, Bear, Minion, a Spanish ship and Spanish frigate) arrives in Port Plenty.
  • 16 August 1572–23 September 1572: Drake cruises near the Main.
  • 15 August 1572–23 September 1572: Mandingo arrives in Port Plenty, and agrees to be an ally due to John Drake.
  • 24 September 1572: Drake arrives in Port Plenty, and relocates their camp.
  • 17 October 1572–19 October 1572: Drake cruises off the Main, and seizes a Spanish barque (50 ton), and maroons her souls (ten Spanish, five slaves).
  • 20 October 1572–21 October 1572: Drake cruises off the Main, and seizes a Spanish ship (58 ton) and Spanish frigate (12 ton), and maroons their souls.
  • 22 October 1572–2 November 1572: Drake (in some vessel) and Mendoza (in two frigates and a shallop) cruise off Carthagena, but the Spanish engage them.
  • 3 November 1572: Drake departs from Carthagena.
  • 5 November 1572: Drake arrives in the Magdalena, but finds no Spanish residents nor livestock, though he seizes a Spanish frigate (no cargo).
  • 12 November 1572: Drake arrives in Santa Marta, and seizes a Spanish ship (90 ton, well-provisioned), and detains her crew, but is opposed by Spanish snipers.
  • 13 November 1572: Drake arrives in Curacao.
  • 15 November 1572–18 November 1572: Oxenham (in the Minion) departs from Curacao.
  • 15 November 1572–26 November 1572: Drake cruises off the Main.
  • 27 November 1572: Drake arrives in Port Plenty, and rests for some time, during which John and Joseph Drake die.
  • 30 January 1573: The Lion cruises off Nombre de Dios, and seizes a Spanish frigate, whose crew are detained and interrogated.
  • 3 February 1573: Drake (with 17 men) and Mandingo (with 30 men) depart from Port Plenty, and march south through the jungle.
  • 14 February 1573: Drake (with 17 men) and Mandingo (with 30 men) arrive in Panama, where they set up an ambush for the Spanish treasure train which is soon foiled, though they do seize a couple laden mules (with fatal casualties[63]), and torch one Spanish settlement.
  • 22 February 1573: Drake (with 17 men) and Mandingo (with 30 men) arrive in Port Plenty.
  • 23 February 1573–19 March 1573: Drake (with 17 men) cruises off Veragua, and seizes a Spanish frigate, and presses her Genoese pilot.
  • 23 February 1573–21 March 1573: Oxenham (in the Bear) and Mandingo (with 30 men) cruise somewhere east of Veragua, and seize a Spanish frigate (well-provisioned).
  • 23 March 1573–30 March 1573: Drake (in the Bear and a Spanish frigate) cruises somewhere.
  • 25 March 1573: Drake (in the Bear and a Spanish frigate) and Testu (with 70 men in the Havre) meet somewhere, and decide to consort with each other.
  • 31 March 1573–3 April 1573: Drake (with 20 men in the Bear, Minion and a Spanish frigate), Testu (with 20 men) and Mandingo sack the Spanish treasure train near Nombre de Dios (with fatal casualties[64]), and seize three mule trains (30 tons of plate[65]), though they perforce leave half of the treasure behind (with Testu and two guards).[66]
  • 7 April 1573–22 April 1573: Oxenham (with 11 men) and Mandingo (with 16 men) try to relieve Testu near Nombre de Dios, and do retrieve a bit of the treasure prior left behind,[67] and relieve one of its guards, but they do not find Testu nor the other Frenchman (presumed dead).
  • 15 April 1573–30 April 1573: Drake (with 30 men) departs from Port Plenty, and seizes a Spanish vessel.
  • 9 August 1573: Drake (with 30 men) arrives in Plymouth.

Aftermath

Drake and company are thought to have profited at least £20,000 altogether (worth some £4.76 million today,[2] but still only one-fifth of Drake's 1571 loot). Some of this may have been forwarded to members of Elizabeth I's Privy Council, who allegedly secured Drake a pre-emptive pardon for his unauthorised expedition. Drake himself may have used some of his share to buy a property on Notte Street, Plymouth, where he was listed as a merchant in 1576.[70]

In the first half of 1573, the Real Audiencia of Panama stationed 60 soldiers at the Nombre de Dios garrison, to bolster that port's defence, and further petitioned the Spanish crown "promptly to take measures necessary to the defence of this coast and kingdom, for it is considered certain that the corsairs who have now left will return in greater force, and it is even said that they announce that they will settle". Later that year, Spanish authorities in Panama retaliated against Drake's Cimarron allies.[73]

The neighbouring Real Audiencia of Guatemala likewise took steps to better defend their ports, planning "to settle some Indians in a location [in Golfo Dulce] such that they can send warning if any [pirate] vessels seek to enter".[74]

Legacy

Wright considers this voyage Drake's first independent expedition, and is of the opinion that his second ambush of the Spanish treasure train may not unfairly be deemed "the most daring attack ever made upon Spanish-American treasure" up to the 1570s.[75] Drake is further reputed as the first Englishman to have reached an elevated lookout point with unobstructed views of the South and North seas both, reportedly from the same lookout used during the Spanish discovery of the former sea in 1513.[33] And either Drake or Oxenham are credited as the first English pirates to have cruised the Bay of Honduras, possibly including its western shores.[78]

In the late 2010s, a Panamanian artisanal rum distillery was named after Mandingo (as Mandinga).[79]

See also

Notes and references

Notes

  1. ↑ Also surnamed Hickson.
  2. ↑ Also surnamed Raunse, Rance, Ranse.
  3. ↑ Also Chief Pedro. Also surnamed Mandiga, Mandinga. A Cimarron chief.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 A Spanish governor.
  5. ↑ Also Pascha, Pasca, Pasco. Vessel of 70 tons with 47 crewmen originally aboard, Francis Drake captain.
  6. ↑ Also Swanlet. Vessel of 25 tons with 26 crewmen originally aboard, John Drake captain.
  7. ↑ The Lion, Bear, Minion. Pinnaces of circa 20 tons.
  8. ↑ With 30 crewmen originally aboard, James Raunce captain, John Overy master.
  9. ↑ Also New Haven. French vessel of 80 tons with 70 crewmen originally aboard, Guillaume Le Testu captain.
  10. ↑ With 30 Cimarron men originally aboard.
  11. ↑ Anton Couto captain.
  12. ↑ Combined strength of units involved in 1572 to 1573. Equivalent value for units involved in 1572 is 103 men, and in 1573 is 173 men.
  13. ↑ At least 40 to 50 men for some engagements.
  14. ↑ And their cargo seized and crews detained, pressed or marooned.
  15. ↑ Meaning the Main in its strict sense, from Rio Belen to the Orinoco only.
  16. ↑ Also (or rather) Fort Diego in [23]. Camp situated on Slaughter Island in [23], or possibly in one of the San Blas Islands.
  17. ↑ Also Las Cruces, Venta de Cruces. On the Chagres River, a few miles near modern Gamboa.
  18. ↑ From Cape Gracias a Dios to Rio Belen.
  1. ↑ "Currency converter: 1270–2017". The National Archives.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 In 2017 by purchasing power, in [1].
  3. ↑ Kelsey 2004, sec. 'Raids on the Spanish main' para. 2-3.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 4.3 Marley 1998, p. 101.
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 Wright 1932, pp. xxxvii–xxxviii.
  6. ↑ In [3] [4] [5]. Ships loaded with kits to later build the small pinnaces Lion, Bear and Minion.
  7. ↑ Also Sapzurro, near modern Sapzurro. Drake had learnt of it on a prior trip, and dubbed it Port Pheasant. Its entrance was through a narrow channel in some reefs, its beach was about a mile long, and its water about seven fathoms deep.
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 8.2 8.3 Kelsey 2004, sec. 'Raids on the Spanish main' para. 3.
  9. ↑ Best 2021, pp. 48–49.
  10. ↑ In [8] [4] [9]. On landing, the men noticed smoke rising from the jungle, and near its source, found a lead plate that read, "Captain Drake, if you fortune to come to this port make haste away, for the Spaniards which you had with you here last year have betrayed the place and taken away all that you left here. I departed from hence this present 7 of July 1572. Your loving friend, John Garrett [of Plymouth]".
  11. ↑ Possibly one of the San Blas Islands. Not the isle in Cuba.
  12. ↑ Wright 1932, p. xxxviii.
  13. ↑ In [4] [8] [12].
  14. ↑ De la O Torres 2020, pp. 268, 281.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 Best 2021, p. 49.
  16. ↑ De la O Torres 2020, p. 281.
  17. ↑ In [4] [14] [5] [15]. Not the faraway island to the east. But [8] [16] suggest the Spanish militia in the plaza were not defeated and dispersed by Drake and Raunce, and perhaps not even engaged, as the latter may have rather retreated immediately upon discovering the vecinos' mustered strength.
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 18.3 Kelsey 2004, sec. 'Raids on the Spanish main' para. 4.
  19. ↑ 19.0 19.1 Marley 1998, pp. 101–102.
  20. ↑ Wright 1932, p. xxxiv.
  21. ↑ Best 2021, pp. 49–50.
  22. ↑ In [18] [19] [20] [21].
  23. ↑ 23.0 23.1 Wright 1932, p. xxxix.
  24. ↑ 24.0 24.1 Best 2021, p. 50.
  25. ↑ In [18] [19] [24]. And [15] say the Cimarrons (almost) took Nombre de Dios by surprise six weeks prior to Drake's arrival in Dominica or Port Pheasant, and say Drake or his brother John made contact with them at Isla de las Palmas.
  26. ↑ 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 26.5 26.6 26.7 Marley 1998, p. 102.
  27. ↑ 27.0 27.1 27.2 Wright 1932, p. xl.
  28. ↑ In [26]. On 27 October, a Spanish merchant frigate ran aground in the bay, but Drake was prevented from taking her by the two armed frigates that formed her escort.[26] On 2 November, these were reinforced by an armed shallop, which engaged Drake.[26] And in [27]: during this cruise, "Drake sought to do more or less honest business with the Spanish at Cartagena, where now he proffered for sale or barter tin, pewter, cloth and other merchandise. However, he found that King Philip had forbidden [the vecinos] to traffic with any foreign Nation; 'no hope remained of any purchase to bee had in this place any longer'".
  29. ↑ In [26]. An unladen Spanish frigate was seized near the Magdalena, and a 90-ton vessel (with victuals) near Curaçao; the latter's crew were detained for a day.[26]
  30. ↑ John had been "sodenlie stroken with a gunne shott" during a 9 October attempt to board a Spanish frigate passing near Port Plenty.
  31. ↑ In [18] [26] [27]. And [27] suggests Joseph's death was part of a yellow fever epidemic in Port Plenty, which would have proved fatal to a number of the men. The crew's doctor, during Joseph's autopsy, found no evidence of yellow fever. He nevertheless concocted an antidote "which he hoped would save other crew members", but died upon trying his own medicine.[24]
  32. ↑ Wright 1932, pp. xli–xliii.
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 Best 2021, pp. 50–51.
  34. ↑ Best 2021, p. 51.
  35. ↑ In [18] [26] [32] [33]. On 11 February, Cimarron chief Pedro Mandingo led Drake to a hilltop tree, from where the latter sighted both oceans flanking the Panamanian isthmus, thereby (reputedly) being the first Englishman to do so. Drake is said to have prayed that God "give him life and leave to sail once in an English ship in that sea".[26][34]
  36. ↑ Marley 1998, pp. 102–103.
  37. ↑ In [36].
  38. ↑ Wright 1932, pt. 1 doc. no 29.
  39. ↑ In [38] (Vallalobos to crown, dated Guatemala, 15 May 1573): "In the month of February a little frigate sailed along the coast of Verague to the mouth of El Desaguadero [San Juan River]. She carried thirteen Englishmen. Her armament was eighteen small culverins and two larger pieces, all ready for action. They seized four frigates which had sailed from the province of Nicaragua (from the city of Leon and from the city of Granada) and were bound to Nombre de Dios to sell poultry, maize and such like. / On Holy Thursday, in the afternoon, these same English with a frigate and a pinnace and a skiff arrived at La Guanaja, which is an island close to the city of Trujillo. They were guided by Antonio Vaez, Portuguese, and two Spaniards whom they had made prisoners at Cape Cameron, where these men had been held captives among the Indians. Seven years before in company with Licentiate Ortiz they had gone to Tegucigalpa and there they had remained, lost. / These two gave the English to understand that they would persuade the Indians of the island to give them good supplies and what they might need. As soon as they reached land they made off among the Indians, who brought them in a canoe to Trujillo, where they now are. / From Trujillo forty soldiers set out in a small ship in search of the Englishman. They say they did not find him, and that he had sailed, steering a northerly course. / I had written to the town council to be on the alert to attack these English if they called; and I warned Puerto de Caballos to be ready, advising that I understood these people were going to do damage in that place. Similarly, they intended to enter Golfo Dulce and pillage certain Spanish establishments which are at the landing place, where there is a quantity of wine and merchandise".
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 Bergreen 2021, pp. 51–52.
  41. ↑ But [40] date their chance encounter to 23 March, and place it just off Cativas Island.
  42. ↑ Marley 1998, p. 103.
  43. ↑ De la O Torres 2020, pp. 281–282.
  44. ↑ Wright 1932, pp. xliii–xliv.
  45. ↑ In [42] [43] [44] [40].
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 Marley 1998, pp. 103–104.
  47. ↑ Wright 1932, pp. liv.
  48. ↑ Best 2021, p. 52.
  49. ↑ In [46] [47] [48].
  50. ↑ With Le Testu now presumed dead, due to the wound he had sustained, or due to the Spanish.
  51. ↑ Kelsey 2004, sec. 'Raids on the Spanish main' para. 5.
  52. ↑ Bergreen 2021, cap. 1 sec. 'Drake did not expect to command ...' para. 9.
  53. ↑ Including Diego, a Cimarron who chose to join the English company.[52]
  54. ↑ Marley 1998, p. 104.
  55. ↑ Bergreen 2021, pp. 52–53.
  56. ↑ In [54] [55].
  57. ↑ Marley 1998, pp. 101–104.
  58. ↑ Wright 1932, pt. 1 docs. nos. 17–35.
  59. ↑ Best 2021, pp. 48–53.
  60. ↑ Wright 1932, p. xli.
  61. ↑ In [57] [58] [59]. For dates: some may be inaccurate,[60] some may be Old Style dates, some (in date ranges) may be lower (earliest) or upper (latest) bounds of listed events.
  62. ↑ Spanish: seven or eight killed; 32 wounded. English: some killed.
  63. ↑ Spanish: four to six killed, including a friar.
  64. ↑ English: one killed. Cimarrons: one killed; one captured. French: two killed; one stranded.
  65. ↑ Silver and gold worth 200,000 pesos; guarded by 45 Spanish men.
  66. ↑ Later recovered by the Spanish.
  67. ↑ They recover 13 silver bars and a few quoits gold.
  68. ↑ Kelsey 2004, sec. 'Raids on the Spanish main' paras. 5-6.
  69. ↑ Wright 1932, p. xlv.
  70. ↑ In [68] [69].
  71. ↑ Wright 1932, pt. 1 doc. no. 25.
  72. ↑ Wright 1932, p. xlv, footnote no. 3.
  73. ↑ In [71] [72].
  74. ↑ Wright 1932, p. 75, pt. 1 doc. no. 29.
  75. ↑ Wright 1932, pp. xxxvii, xlii.
  76. ↑ Wright 1932, pp. xli–xlii.
  77. ↑ Winzerling 1946, pp. 19–22.
  78. ↑ In [76] [77].
  79. ↑ Arjona 2022, para. 1.

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