Canada

This article is about the country. For other uses, see Canada (disambiguation).

Canada
Motto: A mari usque ad mare (Latin) "From Sea to Sea"
Anthem: "O Canada" Royal anthem: "God Save the King"
Capital	Ottawa 45°25′N 75°42′W
Largest city	Toronto
Official languages	English French
Demonym	Canadian
Government	Federal parliamentary constitutional monarchy
• Monarch	Charles III
• Governor General	Louise Arbour
• Prime Minister	Mark Carney
Legislature	Parliament
• Upper house	Senate
• Lower house	House of Commons
Independence  from the United Kingdom
• Confederation	July 1, 1867
• Balfour Declaration	November 15, 1926
• Statute of Westminster	December 11, 1931
• Patriation	April 17, 1982
Area
• Total area	9,984,670 km2 (3,855,100 sq mi) (2nd)
• Water (%)	11.76 (2015)
• Total land area	9,093,507 km2 (3,511,023 sq mi)
Population
• 2026 Q2 estimate	Increase 41,798,407 (37th)
• 2021 census	Increase 36,991,981
• Density	4.2/km2 (10.9/sq mi) (230th)
GDP (PPP)	2026 estimate
• Total	Increase $2.911 trillion (16th)
• Per capita	Increase $70,006 (30th)
GDP (nominal)	2026 estimate
• Total	Increase $2.507 trillion (11th)
• Per capita	Increase $60,305 (23rd)
Gini (2024)	Positive decrease 29.2 low inequality
HDI (2023)	Increase 0.939 very high (16th)
Currency	Canadian dollar ($) (CAD)
Time zone	UTC−3.5 to −7
• Summer (DST)	UTC−2.5 to −7
Calling code	+1
ISO 3166 code	CA
Internet TLD	.ca

Canada is a country in North America. Its ten provinces and three territories extend from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean and northward into the Arctic Ocean, making it the second-largest country by total area, with the longest coastline of any country. Its border with the United States is the longest international land border. The country is characterized by a wide range of both meteorologic and geological regions. With a population of over 41 million, it has widely varying population densities, with the majority residing in its urban areas and large areas being sparsely populated. Its capital is Ottawa and its three largest metropolitan areas are Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Indigenous peoples have continuously inhabited what is now Canada for thousands of years. Beginning in the 16th century, British and French expeditions explored and later settled along the Atlantic coast. As a consequence of various armed conflicts, France ceded nearly all of its colonies in North America in 1763. In 1867, with the union of three British North American colonies through Confederation, Canada was formed as a federal dominion of four provinces. This began an accretion of provinces and territories resulting in the displacement of Indigenous populations, and a process of increasing autonomy from the United Kingdom. This increased sovereignty was highlighted by the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and culminated in the Canada Act 1982, which severed the vestiges of legal dependence on the Parliament of the United Kingdom.

Canada is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy in the Westminster tradition. The country's head of government is the prime minister, who holds office by virtue of their ability to command the confidence of the elected House of Commons and is appointed by the governor general, representing the monarch of Canada, the ceremonial head of state. The country is a Commonwealth realm and is officially bilingual (English and French) in the federal jurisdiction. It is very highly ranked in international measurements of government transparency, quality of life, economic competitiveness, innovation, education and human rights. It is one of the world's most ethnically diverse and multicultural nations, the product of large-scale immigration. Canada's long and complex relationship with the United States has had a significant impact on its history, economy, and culture.

A developed country, Canada's advanced economy has a high nominal per capita GDP globally and ranks among the largest in the world by nominal GDP, relying chiefly upon its abundant natural resources and well-developed international trade networks. Canada is recognized as a middle power; its support for multilateralism and internationalism has been closely related to its foreign policies of peacekeeping and aid for developing countries. Canada promotes its domestically shared values through participation in multiple international organizations and forums.

Etymology

Main article: Name of Canada

While a variety of theories have been postulated for the etymological origins of Canada, the name is now accepted as coming from the St. Lawrence Iroquoian word kanata, meaning 'village' or 'settlement'. In 1535, Indigenous inhabitants of the present-day Quebec City region used the word to direct French explorer Jacques Cartier to the village of Stadacona. Cartier later used the word Canada to refer not only to that particular village but to the entire area subject to Donnacona (the chief at Stadacona); by 1545, European books and maps had begun referring to this small region along the Saint Lawrence River as Canada.

From the 16th to the early 18th century, Canada referred to the part of New France that lay along the Saint Lawrence River. Following the British conquest of New France, this area was known as the British Province of Quebec from 1763 to 1791. In 1791, the area became two British colonies called Upper Canada and Lower Canada. These two colonies were collectively referred to as the Canadas until their union as the Province of Canada in 1841.

Upon Confederation in 1867, Canada was adopted as the legal name for the new country at the London Conference and the word dominion was conferred as the country's title, reflecting its status as a self-governing nation within the British Empire. Following the London Declaration of 1949, where it was agreed that India could be a full member of the Commonwealth as a republic, not a dominion, the leaders of the Commonwealth countries agreed that the other members of the Commonwealth should not continue to be referred to as dominions. In 1951, Prime Minister Louis St. Laurent announced in the Canadian House of Commons that in light of the Statute of Westminster, 1931, and the changes to the Commonwealth, dominion was no longer an accurate term to use to refer to Canada and would no longer be used by the federal government. Similarly by 1952, the United Kingdom no longer used the term dominions to refer to Canada or other members of the Commonwealth, instead beginning to use the term a realm of the Commonwealth.

The Canada Act 1982, which brought the Constitution of Canada fully under Canadian control, referred only to Canada. Later that year, the name of the national holiday was changed from Dominion Day to Canada Day.

History

Main article: History of Canada

Further information: Timeline of Canadian history and Historiography of Canada

Indigenous peoples

The first inhabitants of North America are generally hypothesized to have migrated from Siberia by way of the Bering land bridge and arrived at least 14,000 years ago. The Paleo-Indian archeological sites at Old Crow Flats and Bluefish Caves are two of the oldest sites of human habitation in Canada. The characteristics of Indigenous societies included permanent settlements, agriculture, complex societal hierarchies, and trading networks. Some of these cultures had collapsed by the time European explorers arrived in the late 15th and early 16th centuries and have only been discovered through archeological investigations. Indigenous peoples in present-day Canada include the First Nations, Inuit, and Métis, the last being of mixed descent who originated in the mid-17th century when First Nations people married European settlers and their offspring subsequently developed their own identity.

The Indigenous population at the time of the first European settlements is estimated to have been between 200,000 and two million, with a figure of 500,000 accepted by Canada's Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples. As a consequence of European colonization, the Indigenous population declined by forty to eighty percent. The decline is attributed to several causes, including the transfer of European diseases, to which they had no natural immunity, conflicts over the fur trade, conflicts with the colonial authorities and settlers, and the loss of Indigenous lands to settlers and the subsequent collapse of several nations' self-sufficiency.

Although not without conflict, European Canadians' early interactions with First Nations and Inuit populations were relatively peaceful. First Nations and Métis peoples played a critical part in the development of European colonies in Canada, particularly for their role in assisting European coureurs des bois and voyageurs in their explorations of the continent during the North American fur trade. These early European interactions with First Nations would change from friendship and peace treaties to the dispossession of Indigenous lands through treaties.

Settler colonialism reached a peak in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Canadian governement funded Indian residential schools, administered by Christian churches, that are considered to be part of a genocide against Indigenous people due to the institutions' use of forced assimilation. In 2021, possible gravesites of Indigenous children were found near former Canadian residential schools, highlighting the cultural genocide against Indigenous peoples. A period of redress began with the formation of a reconciliation commission by the Government of Canada in 2008. This included acknowledgment of a cultural genocide, settlement agreements, and betterment of racial discrimination issues, such as addressing the plight of missing and murdered Indigenous women.

European colonization

It is believed that the first documented European to explore the east coast of Canada was Norse explorer Leif Erikson. In approximately 1000 AD, the Norse built a small short-lived encampment that was occupied sporadically for perhaps 20 years at L'Anse aux Meadows on the northern tip of Newfoundland. No further European exploration occurred until 1497, when seafarer John Cabot explored and claimed Canada's Atlantic coast in the name of Henry VII of England. In 1534, French explorer Jacques Cartier explored the Gulf of Saint Lawrence where, on July 24, he planted a 10-metre (33 ft) cross bearing the words, "long live the King of France", and took possession of the territory New France in the name of King Francis I. The early 16th century saw European mariners with navigational techniques pioneered by the Basque and Portuguese establish seasonal whaling and fishing outposts along the Atlantic coast. In general, early settlements appear to have been short-lived due to a combination of the harsh climate, problems with navigating trade routes and competing outputs in Scandinavia.

In 1583, Sir Humphrey Gilbert, by the royal prerogative of Queen Elizabeth I, founded St John's, Newfoundland, as the first North American English seasonal camp. In 1600, the French established their first seasonal trading post at Tadoussac along the Saint Lawrence. French explorer Samuel de Champlain arrived in 1603 and established the first permanent year-round European settlements at Port Royal (in 1605) and Quebec City (in 1608). Among the colonists of New France, Canadiens extensively settled the Saint Lawrence River valley and Acadians settled the present-day Maritimes, while fur traders and Catholic missionaries explored the Great Lakes, Hudson Bay, and the Mississippi watershed to Louisiana. The Beaver Wars broke out in the mid-17th century over control of the North American fur trade.

The English established additional settlements in Newfoundland in 1610 along with settlements in the Thirteen Colonies to the south. A series of four wars erupted in colonial North America between 1689 and 1763; the later wars of the period constituted the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War. Mainland Nova Scotia came under British rule with the 1713 Treaty of Utrecht and Canada and most of New France came under British rule in 1763 after the Seven Years' War.

British North America

The Royal Proclamation of 1763 established First Nation treaty rights, created the Province of Quebec out of New France, and annexed Cape Breton Island to Nova Scotia. St John's Island (now Prince Edward Island) became a separate colony in 1769. To avert conflict in Quebec, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act 1774, expanding Quebec's territory to the Great Lakes and Ohio Valley. More importantly, the Quebec Act afforded Quebec special autonomy and rights of self-administration at a time when the Thirteen Colonies were increasingly agitating against British rule. It re-established the French language, Catholic faith, and French civil law there, staving off the growth of an independence movement in contrast to the Thirteen Colonies. The Proclamation and the Quebec Act in turn angered many residents of the Thirteen Colonies, further fuelling anti-British sentiment in the years prior to the American Revolution.

After the American War of Independence, the 1783 Treaty of Paris recognized the independence of the United States and set the terms of peace, ceding British North American territories south of the Great Lakes and east of the Mississippi River to the new country. The American war of independence also caused a large out-migration of Loyalists, the settlers who had fought against American independence. Many moved to Canada, particularly Atlantic Canada, where their arrival changed the demographic distribution of the existing territories. New Brunswick was in turn split from Nova Scotia as part of a reorganization of Loyalist settlements in the Maritimes, which led to the incorporation of Saint John, New Brunswick, as Canada's first city. To accommodate the influx of English-speaking Loyalists in Central Canada, the Constitutional Act of 1791 divided the province of Canada into French-speaking Lower Canada (later Quebec) and English-speaking Upper Canada (later Ontario), granting each its own elected legislative assembly.

The Canadas were the main front in the War of 1812 between the United States and the United Kingdom. Peace came in 1815; no boundaries were changed. Immigration resumed at a higher level, with over 960,000 arrivals from Britain between 1815 and 1850. New arrivals included refugees escaping the Great Irish Famine as well as Gaelic-speaking Scots displaced by the Highland Clearances. Infectious diseases killed between 25 and 33 percent of Europeans who immigrated to Canada before 1891.

The desire for responsible government resulted in the abortive Rebellions of 1837. The Durham Report subsequently recommended responsible government and the assimilation of French Canadians into English culture. The Act of Union 1840 merged the Canadas into a united Province of Canada and responsible government was established for all provinces of British North America east of Lake Superior by 1855. The signing of the Oregon Treaty by Britain and the United States in 1846 ended the Oregon boundary dispute, extending the border westward along the 49th parallel. This paved the way for British colonies on Vancouver Island (1849) and in British Columbia (1858). The Anglo-Russian Treaty of Saint Petersburg (1825) established the border along the Pacific coast, but, even after the US Alaska Purchase of 1867, disputes continued about the exact demarcation of the Alaska–Yukon and Alaska–British Columbia border.

Confederation and expansion

Following three constitutional conferences, the British North America Act, 1867 officially proclaimed Canadian Confederation on July 1, 1867, initially with four provinces: Ontario, Quebec, Nova Scotia, and New Brunswick. Canada assumed control of Rupert's Land and the North-Western Territory to form the Northwest Territories, where the Métis' grievances ignited the Red River Rebellion and the creation of the province of Manitoba in July 1870. British Columbia and Vancouver Island (which had been united in 1866) joined the confederation in 1871 on the promise of a transcontinental railway extending to Victoria in the province within 10 years, while Prince Edward Island joined in 1873. In 1898, during the Klondike Gold Rush in the Northwest Territories, Parliament created the Yukon Territory. Alberta and Saskatchewan became provinces in 1905. Between 1871 and 1896, almost one quarter of the Canadian population emigrated south to the US.

To settle the West and attract European immigrants, Canada sponsored the construction of three transcontinental railways, enacted the Dominion Lands Act and founded the North-West Mounted Police to maintain regional authority. This period of westward expansion and nation building resulted in the displacement of many Indigenous peoples of the Canadian Prairies to "Indian reserves", clearing the way for ethnic European block settlements. This caused the collapse of the Plains Bison in western Canada and the introduction of European cattle farms and wheat fields dominating the land. The Indigenous peoples saw widespread famine and disease due to the loss of the bison and their traditional hunting lands. The federal government did provide emergency relief, on condition of the Indigenous peoples moving to the reserves. During this time, Canada introduced the Indian Act extending its control over the First Nations to education, government and legal rights.

Early 20th century

Because Britain still maintained control of Canada's foreign affairs under the British North America Act, 1867, its declaration of war in 1914 automatically brought Canada into the First World War. Volunteers sent to the Western Front later became part of the Canadian Corps, which played a substantial role in the Battle of Vimy Ridge and other major engagements of the war. The Conscription Crisis of 1917 erupted when the Unionist Cabinet's proposal to augment the military's dwindling number of active members with conscription was met with vehement objections from French-speaking Quebecers. In 1919, Canada joined the League of Nations independently of Britain. After the 1926 King–Byng affair raised concerns over the governor general's use of reserve powers, the Balfour Declaration that year put Canada on a legal path to full sovereignty equal to Britain's, and the Statute of Westminster, 1931, which implemented the declaration, affirmed Canada's independence.

The Great Depression in Canada during the early 1930s saw an economic downturn, leading to hardship across the country. In response to the downturn, the Co-operative Commonwealth Federation (CCF) in Saskatchewan introduced many elements of a welfare state (as pioneered by Tommy Douglas) in the 1940s and 1950s. On the advice of Prime Minister William Lyon Mackenzie King, war with Germany was declared effective September 10, 1939, by King George VI, seven days after the United Kingdom. The delay underscored Canada's independence.

The first Canadian Army units arrived in Britain in December 1939. In all, over a million Canadians served in the armed forces during the Second World War. Canadian troops played important roles in many key battles of the war, including the failed 1942 Dieppe Raid, the Allied invasion of Italy, the Normandy landings, the Battle of Normandy, and the Battle of the Scheldt in 1944. Canada provided asylum for the Dutch monarchy while that country was occupied and is credited by the Netherlands for major contributions to its liberation from Nazi Germany. Despite another conscription crisis in Quebec in 1944, Canada finished the war with a large army and strong economy.

Contemporary era

The financial crisis of the Great Depression led the Dominion of Newfoundland to relinquish responsible government in 1934 and become a Crown colony ruled by a British governor. After two referendums, Newfoundlanders voted to join Canada in 1949 as a province.

Canada's post-war economic growth, combined with the policies of successive Liberal governments, led to the emergence of a new Canadian identity, marked by the adoption of the maple leaf flag in 1965, the implementation of official bilingualism (English and French) in 1969, and the institution of official multiculturalism in 1971. Socially democratic programs were also instituted, such as Medicare, the Canada Pension Plan, and Canada Student Loans; though, provincial governments, particularly Quebec and Alberta, opposed many of these as incursions into their jurisdictions.

Finally, another series of constitutional conferences resulted in the Canada Act 1982, the patriation of Canada's constitution from the United Kingdom, concurrent with the creation of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. Canada had established complete sovereignty as an independent country under its own monarchy. In 1999, Nunavut became Canada's third territory after a series of negotiations with the federal government.

At the same time, Quebec underwent profound social and economic changes through the Quiet Revolution of the 1960s, giving birth to a secular nationalist movement. The radical Front de libération du Québec (FLQ) ignited the October Crisis with a series of bombings and kidnappings in 1970, and the sovereigntist Parti Québécois was elected in 1976, organizing an unsuccessful referendum on sovereignty-association in 1980. Attempts to accommodate Quebec nationalism constitutionally through the Meech Lake Accord failed in 1990. This led to the formation of the Bloc Québécois in Quebec and the invigoration of the Reform Party of Canada in the West. A second referendum followed in 1995, in which sovereignty was rejected by a slimmer margin of 50.6 to 49.4 percent. In 1997, the Supreme Court ruled unilateral secession by a province would be unconstitutional, and the Clarity Act was passed by Parliament, outlining the terms of a negotiated departure from Confederation.

In addition to the issues of Quebec sovereignty, a number of crises shook Canadian society in the late 1980s and early 1990s. These included the explosion of Air India Flight 182 in 1985, the largest mass murder in Canadian history; the École Polytechnique massacre in 1989, a university shooting targeting female students; and the Oka Crisis of 1990, the first of a number of violent confrontations between provincial governments and Indigenous groups. Canada joined the Gulf War in 1990 and was active in several peacekeeping missions in the 1990s, including operations in the Balkans during and after the Yugoslav Wars, and in Somalia, resulting in an incident that has been described as "the darkest era in the history of the Canadian military". After the September 11 attacks in the United States, Canada sent troops to Afghanistan in 2001, resulting in the largest amount of Canadian deaths for any single military mission since the Korean War in the early 1950s.

In 2011, Canadian forces participated in the NATO-led intervention into the Libyan Civil War and also became involved in battling the Islamic State insurgency in Iraq in the mid-2010s. The COVID-19 pandemic in Canada began on January 27, 2020, causing widespread social and economic disruption. A trade war involving the United States began on February 1, 2025, when U.S. president Donald Trump signed orders imposing tariffs on goods entering the United States, alongside rhetoric suggesting the annexation of Canada.

Geography

Main article: Geography of Canada

By total area (including its waters), Canada is the second-largest country. By land area alone, Canada ranks fourth, due to having the world's largest area of fresh water lakes. Stretching from the Atlantic Ocean in the east, along the Arctic Ocean to the north, and to the Pacific Ocean in the west, the country encompasses 9,984,670 square kilometres (3,855,100 sq mi) of territory. Canada also has vast maritime terrain, with the world's longest coastline of 243,042 kilometres (151,019 mi) In addition to sharing the world's largest land border with the United States—spanning 8,891 kilometres (5,525 mi)—Canada shares a short (1,280 metres (4,200 ft)) land border with Greenland (and hence the Kingdom of Denmark) to the northeast, on Hans Island, and a maritime boundary with France's overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and Miquelon to the southeast. Canada is also home to the world's northernmost settlement, Canadian Forces Station Alert, on the northern tip of Ellesmere Island—latitude 82.5°N—which lies 817 kilometres (508 mi) from the North Pole. In latitude, Canada's most northerly point of land is Cape Columbia in Nunavut at 83°6′41″N, with its southern extreme at Middle Island in Lake Erie at 41°40′53″N. In longitude, Canada's land extends from Cape Spear, Newfoundland, at 52°37′W, to Mount St. Elias, Yukon Territory, at 141°W.

Canada can be divided into seven physiographic regions: the Canadian Shield, the Interior Plains, the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence Lowlands, the Appalachian region, the Western Cordillera, Hudson Bay Lowlands, and the Arctic Archipelago. Boreal forests prevail throughout the country, ice is prominent in northern Arctic regions and through the Rocky Mountains, and the relatively flat Canadian Prairies in the southwest facilitate productive agriculture. The Great Lakes feed the St. Lawrence River (in the southeast) where the lowlands host much of Canada's economic output. Canada has over 2,000,000 lakes—563 of which are larger than 100 square kilometres (39 sq mi)—containing much of the world's fresh water. There are also fresh-water glaciers in the Canadian Rockies, the Coast Mountains, and the Arctic Cordillera. Canada is geologically active, having many earthquakes and potentially active volcanoes.

Climate

Main articles: Temperature in Canada and Climate change in Canada

Average winter and summer high temperatures across Canada vary from region to region. Winters can be harsh in many parts of the country, particularly in the interior and Prairie provinces, which experience a continental climate, where daily average temperatures are near −15 °C (5 °F), but can drop below −40 °C (−40 °F) with severe wind chills. In non-coastal regions, snow can cover the ground for almost six months of the year, while in parts of the north snow can persist year-round. Coastal British Columbia has a temperate climate, with a mild and rainy winter. On the east and west coasts, average high temperatures are generally in the low 20s °C (70s °F), while between the coasts, the average summer high temperature ranges from 25 to 30 °C (77 to 86 °F), with temperatures in some interior locations occasionally exceeding 40 °C (104 °F).

Much of Northern Canada is covered by ice and permafrost. The future of the permafrost is uncertain because the Arctic has been warming at three times the global average as a result of climate change in Canada. The rate of warming has been higher across the North and in the Prairies. In the southern regions of Canada, air pollution from both Canada and the United States—caused by metal smelting, burning coal to power utilities, and vehicle emissions—has resulted in acid rain, which has severely impacted waterways, forest growth, and agricultural productivity. Canada is one of the largest greenhouse gas emitters globally, with emissions increased by 16.5 percent between 1990 and 2022.

Biodiversity

Main article: Wildlife of Canada

Canada is divided into 15 terrestrial and five marine ecozones. These ecozones encompass over 80,000 classified species of Canadian wildlife, with an equal number yet to be formally recognized or discovered. Although Canada has a low percentage of endemic species compared to other countries, due to human activities, invasive species, and environmental issues in the country, there are currently more than 800 species at risk of being lost. About 65 percent of Canada's resident species are considered "Secure". Over half of Canada's landscape is intact and relatively free of human development. The boreal forest of Canada is considered to be the largest intact forest on Earth, with approximately 3,000,000 square kilometres (1,200,000 sq mi) undisturbed by roads, cities or industry. Since the end of the last glacial period, Canada has consisted of eight distinct forest regions.

Approximately 12.1 percent of the nation's landmass and freshwater are conservation areas, including 11.4 percent designated as protected areas. Approximately 13.8 percent of its territorial waters are conserved, including 8.9 percent designated as protected areas. Canada's first National Park, Banff National Park was established in 1885. Canada's oldest provincial park, Algonquin Provincial Park was established in 1893. Established in 2015, Lake Superior National Marine Conservation Area is the world's largest freshwater protected area. Canada's largest national wildlife region, established in 2018, is the Scott Islands Marine National Wildlife Area.

Government and politics

Main articles: Government of Canada and Politics of Canada

Canada is described as a "full democracy", with a tradition of liberalism, and an egalitarian, moderate political ideology. Since the 1960s, an emphasis on social justice has been a distinguishing element of Canada's political culture. Peace, order, and good government, alongside an Implied Bill of Rights, are founding principles of Canadian federalism.

At the federal level, Canada has been dominated by two relatively centrist parties practising "brokerage politics": the centre-left leaning Liberal Party of Canada and the centre-right leaning Conservative Party of Canada (or its predecessors). The historically predominant Liberals position themselves at the centre of the political scale. Five parties had representatives elected to Parliament in the 2025 election—the Liberals, who formed a minority government that transitioned into a majority government in April 2026 owing to defections from other parties; the Conservatives, who became the Official Opposition; the Bloc Québécois; the New Democratic Party (occupying the left); and the Green Party. Far-right and far-left politics have never been a prominent force in Canadian society.

Canada has a parliamentary system within the context of a constitutional monarchy—the monarchy of Canada being the foundation of the executive, legislative, and judicial branches. The reigning monarch is also monarch of 14 other sovereign Commonwealth countries and Canada's 10 provinces. The monarch appoints a representative, the governor general, on the advice of the prime minister, to carry out most of their ceremonial royal duties.

The monarchy is the source of sovereignty and authority in Canada. However, while the governor general or monarch may exercise their power without ministerial advice in rare crisis situations, the use of the executive powers (or royal prerogative) is otherwise directed by the Cabinet, a committee of ministers of the Crown responsible to the elected House of Commons and chosen and headed by the prime minister, the head of government. To ensure the stability of government, the governor general will usually appoint as prime minister the person who is the current leader of the political party that can obtain the confidence of a majority of members in the House. The Prime Minister's Office (PMO) is one of the most powerful institutions in government, initiating most legislation for parliamentary approval and selecting for appointment by the Crown the governor general, lieutenant governors, senators, federal court judges, and heads of Crown corporations and government agencies. The leader of the party with the second-most seats usually becomes the leader of the Official Opposition and is part of an adversarial parliamentary system intended to keep the government in check.

The Parliament of Canada passes all federal statute laws. It comprises the monarch, the House of Commons, and the Senate. While Canada inherited the British concept of parliamentary supremacy, this was later, with the enactment of the Constitution Act, 1982, all but completely superseded by the American notion of the supremacy of the law.

Each of the 343 members of Parliament in the House of Commons is elected by simple plurality in an electoral district or riding. The Constitution Act, 1982, requires that no more than five years pass between elections, although the Canada Elections Act limits this to four years with a "fixed" election date in October; general elections still must be called by the governor general and can be triggered by either the advice of the prime minister or a lost confidence vote in the House. The 105 members of the Senate, whose seats are apportioned on a regional basis, serve until age 75.

Canadian federalism divides government responsibilities between the federal government and the 10 provinces. Provincial legislatures are unicameral and operate in parliamentary fashion similar to the House of Commons. Canada's three territories also have legislatures, but these are not sovereign, have fewer constitutional responsibilities than the provinces, and differ structurally from their provincial counterparts.

Law

Main article: Law of Canada

The Constitution of Canada is the supreme law of the country and consists of written text and unwritten conventions. The Constitution Act, 1867 (known as the British North America Act, 1867 prior to 1982), affirmed governance based on parliamentary precedent and divided powers between the federal and provincial governments. The Statute of Westminster, 1931, granted full autonomy, and the Constitution Act, 1982, ended all legislative ties to Britain, as well as adding a constitutional amending formula and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms. The Charter guarantees basic rights and freedoms that usually cannot be overridden by any government; a notwithstanding clause allows Parliament and the provincial legislatures to override certain sections of the Charter for a period of five years.

Canada's judiciary interprets laws and has the power to strike down acts of Parliament that violate the constitution. The Supreme Court of Canada is the highest court, final arbiter, and has been led since 2017 by Richard Wagner, the Chief Justice of Canada. The governor general appoints the court's nine members on the advice of the prime minister and minister of justice. The federal Cabinet also appoints justices to superior courts in the provincial and territorial jurisdictions.

Common law prevails everywhere except Quebec, where civil law predominates. Criminal law is solely a federal responsibility and is uniform throughout Canada. Law enforcement, including criminal courts, is officially a provincial responsibility, conducted by provincial and municipal police forces. In most rural and some urban areas, policing responsibilities are contracted to the federal Royal Canadian Mounted Police.

Canadian Aboriginal law provides certain constitutionally recognized rights to land and traditional practices for Indigenous groups in Canada. Various treaties and case laws were established to mediate relations between Europeans and many Indigenous peoples. The role of Aboriginal law and the rights they support were reaffirmed by section 35 of the Constitution Act, 1982. These rights may include provision of services, such as healthcare through the Indian Health Transfer Policy, and exemption from taxation.

Provinces and territories

Main article: Provinces and territories of Canada

See also: Canadian federalism

Canada is a federation composed of 10 federated states, called provinces, and three federal territories. These may be grouped into four main regions: Western Canada, Central Canada, Atlantic Canada, and Northern Canada (Eastern Canada refers to Central Canada and Atlantic Canada together). Provinces and territories have responsibility for social programs such as healthcare, education, and social programs, as well as administration of justice (but not criminal law). Although the provinces collect more revenue than the federal government, equalization payments are made by the federal government to ensure reasonably uniform standards of services and taxation are kept between the richer and poorer provinces.

The major difference between a Canadian province and a territory is that provinces receive their sovereignty from the Crown and power and authority from the Constitution Act, 1867, whereas territorial governments have powers delegated to them by the Parliament of Canada and the commissioners represent the King in his federal Council, rather than the monarch directly. The powers flowing from the Constitution Act, 1867, are divided between the federal government and the provincial governments to exercise exclusively and any changes to that arrangement require a constitutional amendment, while changes to the roles and powers of the territories may be performed unilaterally by the Parliament of Canada.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of Canada

Canada is recognized as a middle power for its role in global affairs with a tendency to pursue multilateral and international solutions. The country actively promotes its domestically shared values of human rights, the rule of law and foreign aid through membership in multiple international organizations.

The "golden age of Canadian diplomacy" refers to a period in Canadian history, typically considered to be the mid-twentieth century, when Canada experienced a high level of success in its foreign relations and diplomatic efforts. Canada's leading role in the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and its development of modern peacekeeping during this period played a major role in the country's positive global image. The country has since fostered a favourable reputation on the world stage, widely viewed as a responsible and ethical country.

Canada and the United States have a long and complex relationship; historically close allies, they have co-operated regularly on military campaigns and humanitarian efforts. Canada also maintains traditional ties to the United Kingdom and to France, along with both countries' former colonies, through its membership in the Commonwealth of Nations and the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie. Canada is noted for having a positive relationship with the Netherlands, owing, in part, to its contribution to the Dutch liberation during the Second World War. Canada has diplomatic and consular offices in over 270 locations in approximately 180 foreign countries.

Military

Main articles: Canadian Armed Forces and Canadian peacekeeping

Further information: Military history of Canada

Alongside many domestic obligations, more than 3,000 Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) personnel are deployed in multiple foreign military operations. The Canadian unified forces comprise the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, and Royal Canadian Air Force. The nation employs a professional, volunteer force of approximately 68,000 active personnel and 27,000 reserve personnel. Canada will spend 2% of its GDP on defence by the 2026 fiscal year, up from 1.3 to 1.4%.

Peacekeeping is deeply embedded in Canadian culture and a distinguishing feature that Canadians feel sets their foreign policy apart from the United States. Canada has long been reluctant to participate in military interventions that are not sanctioned by the United Nations, such as the Vietnam War, the 2003 invasion of Iraq and the 2026 Iran war. Since the 21st century, Canadian direct participation in UN peacekeeping efforts has greatly declined. The large decrease was a result of Canada directing its participation to UN-sanctioned military operations through the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, rather than directly through the UN. The change to participation via NATO has resulted in a shift towards more militarized and deadly missions rather than traditional peacekeeping duties.

Economy

Main article: Economy of Canada

Canada's mixed-market economy is highly developed, ranking as the world's ninth-largest by nominal GDP as of 2023, at approximately US$2.221 trillion. The country is one of the world's largest trading nations, with a highly globalized economy. In 2021, Canadian trade in goods and services reached $2.016 trillion. Canada's exports totalled over $637 billion, while its imported goods were worth over $631 billion, of which approximately $391 billion originated from the United States. The Toronto Stock Exchange is the ninth-largest stock exchange in the world by market capitalization, listing over 1,500 companies with a combined market capitalization of over US$2 trillion.

The Bank of Canada is the central bank of the country. The minister of finance and minister of innovation, science, and industry use data from Statistics Canada to enable financial planning and develop economic policy. Canada has a strong cooperative banking sector, with the world's highest per-capita membership in credit unions. Canada "is widely regarded as among the least corrupt countries of the world", with a relatively low level of income disparity. The country's average household disposable income per capita is "well above" the OECD average. In 2024, Canada had the second-largest foreign direct investment stock-to-GDP ratio among G20 countries and the lowest net debt of G7 members. Canada ranks among the lowest of the most developed countries for housing affordability.

Since the early 20th century, the growth of Canada's manufacturing, mining, and service sectors has transformed the nation from a largely rural economy to an urbanized, industrial one. The Canadian economy is dominated by the service industry, which employs about three-quarters of the country's workforce. Canada has an unusually important primary sector, of which the forestry and petroleum industries are the most prominent components. Many towns in northern Canada, where agriculture is difficult, are sustained by nearby mines or sources of timber.

Canada's economic integration with the United States has increased significantly since the Second World War. The Canada – United States Free Trade Agreement (FTA) of 1988 eliminated tariffs between the two countries, while the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) expanded the free-trade zone to include Mexico in 1994 (later replaced by the Canada–United States–Mexico Agreement). As of 2023, Canada is a signatory to 15 free trade agreements with 51 different countries.

Canada is one of the few developed nations that are net exporters of energy. Atlantic Canada possess vast offshore deposits of natural gas, and Alberta hosts the fourth-largest oil reserves in the world. The vast Athabasca oil sands and other oil reserves give Canada 13 percent of global oil reserves, constituting the world's third- or fourth-largest. Canada is additionally one of the world's largest suppliers of agricultural products; the Canadian Prairies region is one of the most important global producers of wheat, canola, and other grains. Canada's main exports are zinc, uranium, gold, nickel, platinoids, aluminum, steel, iron ore, coking coal, lead, copper, molybdenum, cobalt, and cadmium. Canada has a sizeable manufacturing sector centred in southern Ontario and Quebec, with automobiles and aeronautics representing particularly important industries. The country's fishing and tourism industries are also a key contributor to the economy.

Science and technology

Main article: Science and technology in Canada

In 2020, Canada spent approximately $41.9 billion on domestic research and development, with supplementary estimates for 2022 at $43.2 billion. As of 2023, the country has produced 15 Nobel laureates in physics, chemistry, and medicine. The country ranks seventh in the worldwide share of articles published in scientific journals, according to the Nature Index, and is home to the headquarters of a number of global technology firms. Canada has one of the highest levels of Internet access in the world, with approximately 95 percent of its population aged 15 and above.

Canada's achievements in science and technology include the creation of the modern alkaline battery, the discovery of insulin, the development of the polio vaccine, and discoveries about the interior structure of the atomic nucleus. Other major Canadian scientific contributions include the artificial cardiac pacemaker, mapping the visual cortex, the development of the electron microscope, plate tectonics, deep learning, multi-touch technology, and the identification of the first black hole, Cygnus X-1. Canada has a long history of discovery in genetics, which include stem cells, site-directed mutagenesis, T-cell receptor, and the identification of the genes that cause Fanconi anemia, cystic fibrosis, and early-onset Alzheimer's disease, among numerous other diseases.

The Canadian Space Agency runs an active space program focused on deep-space, planetary, and aviation research, along with rockets and satellites. Canada launched its first satellite, Alouette 1, in 1962. It contributes to the International Space Station and is known for its robotic tools, such as multiple Canadarms. Canada has initiated many long-term projects, including the Radarsat satellite series and the Black Brant rocket series.

Demographics

Main articles: Demographics of Canada, List of cities in Canada, and List of census metropolitan areas and agglomerations in Canada

The 2021 Canadian census enumerated a total population of 36,991,981, an increase of around 5.2 percent over the 2016 figure. It is estimated that Canada's population surpassed 40,000,000 in 2023. The main drivers of population growth are immigration and, to a lesser extent, natural growth. Canada has one of the highest per-capita immigration rates in the world, driven mainly by economic policy and family reunification. A record 483,390 immigrants were admitted in 2024. Canada leads the world in refugee resettlement; it resettled more than 47,600 in 2022. New immigrants settle mostly in major urban areas, such as Toronto, Montreal, and Vancouver.

Canada's population density, at 4.2 inhabitants per square kilometre (11/sq mi), is among the lowest in the world, with approximately 95 percent of the population residing south of the 55th parallel north. About 80 percent of the population lives within 150 kilometres (93 mi) of the border with the contiguous United States. Canada is highly urbanized, with over 80 percent of the population living in urban centres. The majority of Canadians (over 70%) live south of the 49th parallel, with 50 percent of Canadians living south of 45°42′ (45.7 degrees) north. The most densely populated part of the country is the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor in Southern Quebec and Southern Ontario along the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River.

The majority of Canadians (81.1%) live in family households, 12.1 percent report living alone, and 6.8 percent live with other relatives or unrelated persons. Households comprising couples with or without children make up 51 percent of all households; 8.7 percent of households are single-parent households, 2.9 percent are multigenerational households, and 29.3 percent are single-person households.

Largest metropolitan areas in Canada 2021 Canadian census
Rank		Province	Pop.	Rank		Province	Pop.
1	Toronto	Ontario	6,202,225	11	London	Ontario	543,551
2	Montreal	Quebec	4,291,732	12	Halifax	Nova Scotia	465,703
3	Vancouver	British Columbia	2,642,825	13	Niagara Region	Ontario	433,604
4	Ottawa–Gatineau	Ontario–Quebec	1,488,307	14	Windsor	Ontario	422,630
5	Calgary	Alberta	1,481,806	15	Oshawa	Ontario	415,311
6	Edmonton	Alberta	1,418,118	16	Victoria	British Columbia	397,237
7	Quebec City	Quebec	839,311	17	Saskatoon	Saskatchewan	317,480
8	Winnipeg	Manitoba	834,678	18	Regina	Saskatchewan	249,217
9	Hamilton	Ontario	785,184	19	Sherbrooke	Quebec	227,398
10	Waterloo Region	Ontario	575,847	20	Kelowna	British Columbia	222,162

Ethnicity

Main article: Ethnic origins of people in Canada

Respondents in the 2021 Canadian census self-reported over 450 "ethnic or cultural origins". The major panethnic groups chosen were: European (52.5%), North American (22.9%), Asian (19.3%), North American Indigenous (6.1%), African (3.8%), Latin, Central and South American (2.5%), Caribbean (2.1%), Oceanian (0.3%), and other (6%). Over 60 percent of Canadians reported a single origin, and 36 percent reported having multiple ethnic origins, thus the overall total is greater than 100 percent.

The country's ten largest self-reported ethnic or cultural origins in 2021 were Canadian (accounting for 15.6 percent of the population), followed by English (14.7%), Irish (12.1%), Scottish (12.1%), French (11.0%), German (8.1%), Chinese (4.7%), Italian (4.3%), Indian (3.7%), and Ukrainian (3.5%).

Of the 36.3 million people enumerated in 2021, approximately 25.4 million reported being "White", representing 69.8 percent of the population. The Indigenous population representing 5 percent or 1.8 million people, grew by 9.4 percent compared to the non-Indigenous population, which grew by 5.3 percent from 2016 to 2021. One out of every four Canadians or 26.5 percent of the population belonged to a non-White and non-Indigenous visible minority, the largest of which in 2021 were South Asian (2.6 million people; 7.1%), Chinese (1.7 million; 4.7%), Black (1.5 million; 4.3%), Filipinos (960,000 2.6%), Arabs (690,000; 1.9%), Latin Americans (580,000; 1.6%), Southeast Asians (390,000; 1.1%), West Asians (360,000; 1.0%), Koreans (220,000; 0.6%) and Japanese (99,000; 0.3%).

Between 2011 and 2016, the visible minority population rose by 18.4 percent. In 1961, about 300,000 people, less than two percent of Canada's population, were members of visible minority groups. The 2021 census indicated that 8.3 million people, or almost one-quarter (23.0%) of the population, reported themselves as being or having been a landed immigrant or permanent resident in Canada—above the 1921 census previous record of 22.3 percent. In 2021, India, China, and the Philippines were the top three countries of origin for immigrants moving to Canada.

Languages

Main article: Languages of Canada

A multitude of languages are used by Canadians, with English and French (the official languages) being the mother tongues of approximately 54 percent and 19 percent of Canadians, respectively. Canada's official bilingualism policies give citizens the right to receive federal government services in either English or French with official-language minorities guaranteed their own schools in all provinces and territories.

Quebec's 1974 Official Language Act established French as the only official language of the province. Although more than 82 percent of French-speaking Canadians live in Quebec, there are substantial Francophone populations in New Brunswick, Alberta, and Manitoba, with Ontario having the largest French-speaking population outside Quebec. New Brunswick, the only officially bilingual province, has an Acadian French minority constituting 33 percent of the population. There are also clusters of Acadians in southwestern Nova Scotia, on Cape Breton Island, and in central and western Prince Edward Island.

Other provinces have no official languages as such, but French is used as a language of instruction, in courts, and for other government services, in addition to English. Manitoba, Ontario, and Quebec allow for both English and French to be spoken in the provincial legislatures and laws are enacted in both languages. In Ontario, French has some legal status, but is not fully co-official. There are 11 Indigenous language groups, composed of more than 65 distinct languages and dialects. Several Indigenous languages have official status in the Northwest Territories. Inuktitut is the majority language in Nunavut and is one of three official languages in the territory.

As of the 2021 census, just over 7.8 million Canadians listed a non-official language as their first language. Some of the most common non-official first languages include Mandarin (679,255 first-language speakers), Punjabi (666,585), Cantonese (553,380), Spanish (538,870), Arabic (508,410), Tagalog (461,150), Italian (319,505), German (272,865), and Tamil (237,890). The country is also home to many sign languages, some of which are Indigenous. American Sign Language (ASL) is used across the country due to the prevalence of ASL in primary and secondary schools. Quebec Sign Language (LSQ) is used primarily in Quebec.

Religion

Main article: Religion in Canada

Canada is religiously diverse, encompassing a wide range of beliefs and customs. The Constitution of Canada refers to God; however, Canada has no official church and the government is officially committed to religious pluralism. Freedom of religion in Canada is a constitutionally protected right.

Rates of religious adherence have steadily decreased since the 1970s. With Christianity in decline after having once been central and integral to Canadian culture and daily life, Canada has become a post-Christian, secular state. Although the majority of Canadians consider religion to be unimportant in their daily lives, they still believe in God. The practice of religion is generally considered a private matter.

According to the 2021 census, Christianity is the largest religion in Canada, with Roman Catholics representing 29.9 percent of the population having the most adherents. Christians overall representing 53.3 percent of the population, are followed by people reporting irreligion or having no religion at 34.6 percent. Other faiths include Islam (4.9%), Hinduism (2.3%), Sikhism (2.1%), Buddhism (1.0%), Judaism (0.9%), and Indigenous spirituality (0.2%). Canada has the second-largest national Sikh population, behind India.

Health

Main article: Healthcare in Canada

Healthcare in Canada is delivered through the provincial and territorial systems of publicly funded health care, informally called Medicare. It is guided by the provisions of the Canada Health Act of 1984 and is universal. Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national healthcare insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country". Around 30 percent of Canadians' healthcare is paid for through the private sector. This mostly pays for services not covered or partially covered by Medicare, such as prescription drugs, dentistry and optometry. Approximately 65 to 75 percent of Canadians have some form of supplementary health insurance; many receive it through their employers or access secondary social service programs.

In common with many other developed countries, Canada is experiencing an increase in healthcare expenditures due to a demographic shift toward an older population, with more retirees and fewer people of working age. In 2021, the average age in Canada was 41.9 years. Life expectancy is 81.1 years. A 2016 report by the chief public health officer found that 88 percent of Canadians, one of the highest proportions of the population among G7 countries, indicated that they "had good or very good health". Eighty percent of Canadian adults self-report having at least one major risk factor for chronic disease: smoking, physical inactivity, unhealthy eating or excessive alcohol use. Canada has one of the highest rates of adult obesity among OECD countries, contributing to approximately 2.7 million cases of diabetes. Four chronic diseases—cancer (leading cause of death), cardiovascular diseases, respiratory diseases, and diabetes—account for 65 percent of deaths in Canada. There are approximately 8 million people aged 15 and older with one or more disabilities in Canada.

In 2024, the Canadian Institute for Health Information estimated that healthcare spending reached $372 billion, or 12.4 percent of Canada's GDP for that year. In 2022, Canada's per-capita spending on health expenditures ranked 12th among health-care systems in the OECD. The Commonwealth Fund's 2021 report comparing the healthcare systems of the 11 most developed countries ranked Canada second-to-last. Identified weaknesses were comparatively higher infant mortality rate, the prevalence of chronic conditions, long wait times, poor availability of after-hours care, and a lack of prescription drugs and dental coverage. An increasing problem in Canada's health system is a lack of healthcare professionals and hospital capacity.

Education

Main articles: Education in Canada and Higher education in Canada

Education in Canada is for the most part provided publicly, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and a province's curriculum is overseen by its government. Education in Canada is generally divided into primary education, followed by secondary and post-secondary education. Education in both English and French is available in most places across Canada. Canada has a large number of universities, almost all of which are publicly funded. Established in 1663, Université Laval is the oldest post-secondary institution in Canada. The nation's three top ranking universities are the University of Toronto, McGill, and the University of British Columbia. The largest university is the University of Toronto, which has over 85,000 students.

According to a 2022 report by the OECD, Canada is one of the most educated countries in the world; the country ranks first worldwide in the percentage of adults having tertiary education, with over 56 percent of Canadian adults having attained at least an undergraduate college or university degree. Canada spends an average of 5.3 percent of its GDP on education. The country invests heavily in tertiary education (more than US$20,000 per student). As of 2022, 89 percent of adults aged 25 to 64 have earned the equivalent of a high-school degree, compared to an OECD average of 75 percent.

Culture

Main article: Culture of Canada

Further information: Canadian values and Canadian identity

Canada is influenced by British, French and Indigenous cultures and traditions. During the 20th century, Canadians with African, Caribbean, and Asian heritages have added to Canadian identity. Canada's culture draws influences from its broad range of constituent nationalities, and policies that promote a just society are constitutionally protected. Since the 1960s, Canada has emphasized human rights and inclusiveness for all its people. Canadian identity shifted from primarily British-based to multicultural between the 1960s and 1970s.

The official state policy of multiculturalism is often cited as one of Canada's significant accomplishments and a key distinguishing element of Canadian identity. In Quebec, cultural identity is strong and there is a French Canadian culture that is distinct from English Canadian culture. As a whole, Canada is in theory a cultural mosaic of regional ethnic subcultures with diverse areas and ethnic enclaves.

Canada's approach to governance emphasizing multiculturalism, which is based on selective immigration, social integration, and suppression of far-right politics, has wide public support. Government policies such as publicly funded health care, higher taxation to redistribute wealth, the outlawing of capital punishment, strong efforts to eliminate poverty, strict gun control, a social liberal attitude toward women's rights (like pregnancy termination) and LGBT rights, and legalized euthanasia and cannabis use are indicators of Canada's political and cultural values. Canadians also identify with the country's foreign aid policies, peacekeeping roles, the national park system, and the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms.

Symbols

Main articles: National symbols of Canada and Canadian royal symbols

Themes of nature, pioneers, trappers, and traders played an important part in the early development of Canadian symbolism. Modern symbols emphasize the country's geography, northern climate, lifestyles, and the Canadianization of traditional European and Indigenous symbols. The use of the maple leaf as a symbol dates to the early 18th century in New France. The maple leaf is depicted on Canada's current and previous flags and on the arms of Canada. Canada's official tartan, known as the "maple leaf tartan", reflects the colours of the maple leaf through the seasons—green in the spring, gold in the early autumn, red at the first frost, and brown after falling. The arms of Canada are closely modelled after those of the United Kingdom, with French and distinctive Canadian elements replacing or added to those derived from the British version.

Other prominent symbols include the national motto, "A mari usque ad mare" ("from sea to sea"), the sports of ice hockey and lacrosse, the beaver, Canada goose, common loon, Canadian horse, the Royal Canadian Mounted Police, the Canadian Rockies, and, more recently, the Indigenous totem pole and Inuksuk. Canadian cuisine items such as Canadian beer, maple syrup, Nanaimo bars, butter tarts, and the Quebec dishes of poutine and tourtière, alongside material items such as tuques, canoes and Hudson's Bay point blanket are considered as uniquely Canadian. Canadian coins feature many of these symbols: the loon on the $1 coin, the coat of arms on the 50¢ piece, and the beaver on the nickel. An image of the monarch appears on $20 bank notes and the obverse of coins.

Literature

Main article: Canadian literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French- and English-language literatures, which are rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively. The earliest Canadian narratives were of travel and exploration. This developed into three major themes of historical Canadian literature: nature, frontier life, and Canada's position within the world, all of which tie into the garrison mentality. The evolution of Canadian literature is intricately linked to the country's historical and social contexts, often mirroring the challenges and changes in Canadian society. As Canadian literature progressed into the 20th and 21st centuries, it began to address a broader array of subjects and themes, such as women's rights, LGBTQ rights, immigrant experiences, environmental issues, the relationship with Indigenous peoples, and Canadian values and identity.

Financial support from governmental bodies, such as the Canada Council for the Arts and various provincial grant programs, facilitates the creation, publication, and promotion of works by Canadian authors. Numerous Canadian authors have received international literary awards including the Nobel Prize in Literature, the Booker Prize, and the Pulitzer Prize for Fiction. Canadian literary awards and prizes include the Governor General's Literary Awards, the Giller Prize, the Latner Griffin Writers' Trust Poetry Prize, the Burt Award for First Nations, Inuit and Métis Literature and several accolades for literature aimed at children.

Visual arts

Main article: Canadian art

Art in Canada is marked by thousands of years of habitation by Indigenous peoples, and, in later times, artists have combined British, French, Indigenous, and American artistic traditions, at times embracing European styles while working to promote nationalism. The nature of Canadian art reflects these diverse origins, as artists have taken their traditions and adapted these influences to reflect the reality of their lives in Canada. The Group of Seven is often considered the first uniquely Canadian artistic group and style of painting. Inuit art since the 1950s has been the traditional gift given to foreign dignitaries by the Canadian government.

Historically, the Catholic Church was the primary patron of art in early Canada, especially Quebec. The Government of Canada has played a role in the development of art, through the department of Canadian Heritage by giving grants to art galleries, as well as by establishing and funding art schools and colleges across the country, and through the Canada Council for the Arts. The Canada Council Art Bank also helps artists by buying and publicizing their work. Great achievements in art in Canada are recognized through various awards and prizes, such as the Molson Prize, the Audain Prize for the Visual Arts, and the Governor General's Visual and Media Arts Awards.

Music

Main article: Music of Canada

Canadian music reflects a variety of regional scenes. Canada has developed a vast music infrastructure that includes church halls, chamber halls, conservatories, academies, performing arts centres, record companies, radio stations, music charts, and television music video channels. Government support programs, such as the Canada Music Fund, assist a wide range of musicians and entrepreneurs who create, produce and market original and diverse Canadian music. As a result of its cultural importance, as well as government initiatives and regulations, the Canadian music industry is one of the largest in the world, producing internationally renowned composers, musicians, and ensembles. Achievements in music are recognized through various awards and prizes, most notably, the Juno Awards presented by the Canadian Academy of Recording Arts and Sciences. The country also hosts numerous music halls of fame with the Canadian Music Hall of Fame honouring musicians at the national level for their lifetime achievements.

"God Save the King" has been used in Canada since the late 1700s and is the country's de facto royal anthem. Patriotic music by Canadians dates back over 200 years, with "The Bold Canadian", written in 1812, popular throughout the 19th century. "The Maple Leaf Forever", written in 1866, was popular and served as an unofficial national anthem of English Canada. "O Canada", originally composed in French in 1880, also served as an unofficial national anthem during the 20th century and was adopted as the country's official anthem in 1980.

Media

Main articles: Media of Canada and Censorship in Canada

Canada's media is highly autonomous, diverse, and very regionalized. The Broadcasting Act declares "the system should serve to safeguard, enrich, and strengthen the cultural, political, social, and economic fabric of Canada". Canada has a well-developed media sector, but its cultural output—particularly in English films, television shows, and magazines—is often overshadowed by imports from the United States. As a result, the preservation of a distinctly Canadian culture is supported by federal government programs, laws, and institutions such as the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC), the National Film Board of Canada (NFB), and the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).

Canadian mass media, both print and digital, and in both official languages, is largely dominated by a handful of corporations. The largest of these corporations is the country's national public broadcaster, the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation, which also plays a significant role in producing domestic cultural content, operating its own radio and TV networks in both English and French. In addition to the CBC, some provincial governments offer their own public educational TV broadcast services as well, such as TVOntario and Télé-Québec.

Non-news media content in Canada, including film and television, is influenced both by local creators as well as by imports from the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia, and France. In an effort to reduce the amount of foreign-made media, government interventions in television broadcasting can include both regulation of content and public financing. Canadian tax laws limit foreign competition in magazine advertising.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Canada

Canada's official national sports are ice hockey and lacrosse. Other major professional games include curling, basketball, baseball, soccer, and football. Great achievements in Canadian sports are recognized by numerous "Halls of Fame" and museums, such as Canada's Sports Hall of Fame.

Canada shares several major professional sports leagues with the United States. Canadian teams in these leagues include seven franchises in the National Hockey League, three Major League Soccer teams, and one team in each of Major League Baseball and the National Basketball Association. Other popular professional competitions include the Canadian Football League, National Lacrosse League, the Canadian Premier League, and the curling tournaments hosted by Curling Canada. Canadians identified hockey as their preferred sport for viewing, followed by soccer and then basketball.

In terms of participation, swimming was the most commonly reported sport by over one-third (35%) of Canadians in 2023. This was closely followed by cycling (33%) and running (27%). The popularity of specific sports varies; in general, the Canadian-born population was more likely to have participated in winter sports such as ice hockey (the most popular young adult team sport), skating, skiing and snowboarding, compared with immigrants, who were more likely to have played soccer (the most popular youth team sport), tennis or basketball. Sports such as golf, volleyball, badminton, bowling, and martial arts are also widely enjoyed at the youth and amateur levels.

The Canada Games is the country's highest-level youth multi-sport event held every two years. Canada has enjoyed success both at the Winter Olympics and the Summer Olympics—particularly the Winter Games as a "winter sports nation". Canada has hosted high-profile international sporting events such as the 1976 Summer Olympics, the 1988 Winter Olympics, the 2010 Winter Olympics, multiple Commonwealth Games, the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup, the 2015 Pan American Games and 2015 Parapan American Games. The country co-hosted the 2026 FIFA World Cup alongside Mexico and the United States.

Armed forces

2nd Canadian Division during World War II

The 2nd Canadian Division, an infantry division of the Canadian Army, was mobilized for war service on 1September 1939 at the outset of World War II. Adopting the designation of the 2nd Canadian Division, it was initially composed of volunteers within brigades established along regional lines, though a halt in recruitment in the early months of the war caused a delay in the formation of brigade and divisional headquarters.

North-West Mounted Police

The North-West Mounted Police (NWMP) was a Canadian paramilitary police force, established in 1873, to maintain order in the new Canadian North-West Territories (NWT) following the 1870 transfer of Rupert's Land and North-Western Territory from the Hudson's Bay Company to Canada. The Red River Rebellion and reports of lawlessness in the West, demonstrated by the subsequent Cypress Hills Massacre and fears of United States military incursions into Canada's new hinterland had pushed the Canada government to provide the means of enforcement of law and order.

2nd Canadian Regiment

The 2nd Canadian Regiment (1776–1783), also known as Congress's Own or Hazen's Regiment, was an Extra Continental regiment of the American Patriots' Continental Army, consisting primarily of volunteers from the Province of Quebec. It was authorized on January 20, 1776 under the command of Colonel Moses Hazen.

No. 2 Squadron RCAF

No. 2 (Army Co-Operation) Squadron was a Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadron active during the late 1930s. The squadron operated army cooperation aircraft from 1935, and upon the outbreak of World War II was selected for overseas duty.

No. 3 Squadron RCAF

No. 3 (Bomber) Squadron was a Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) squadron active during the late 1930s.

No.410 Squadron RCAF

410 Tactical Fighter Operational Training Squadron (410e Escadron d'entraînement opérationnel à l'appui tactique), nicknamed the "Cougars", is a Royal Canadian Air Force aircraft squadron currently at Canada's primary training base for the CF-18 (Canadian Forces version of the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet), at Cold Lake, Alberta. The squadron was formed during the Second World War as an RCAF squadron under the Royal Air Force (RAF), at RAF Ayr, near Prestwick, in Scotland.

Yukon Field Force

The Yukon Field Force, later termed the Yukon Garrison, was a unit of 203 officers and men from the Permanent Force of the Canadian Militia that served in the Yukon between 1898 and 1900. The force was created in the wake of the Klondike Gold Rush in response to fears that the United States might attempt to seize the region.

162nd (Parry Sound) Battalion, CEF

The 162nd (Parry Sound) Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Based in Parry Sound, Ontario, the unit began recruiting in late 1915 in that city. After sailing to England in November 1916, the battalion was absorbed into the 3rd and 4th Reserve Battalions on January 4, 1917.

1st Canadian Parachute Battalion

The 1st Canadian Parachute Battalion was an airborne infantry battalion of the Canadian Army formed in July 1942 during the Second World War; it served in North West Europe, landing in Normandy during Operation Tonga, in conjunction with the D-Day landings of 6 June 1944 and in the airborne assault crossing of the River Rhine, Operation Varsity, in March 1945. After the end of hostilities in Europe, the battalion was returned to Canada where it was disbanded on 30 September 1945.

409 Tactical Fighter Squadron

409 Tactical Fighter Squadron (French: 409e Escadron d'appui tactique) is a unit of the Royal Canadian Air Force. The squadron operates the CF-18 Hornet from CFB Cold Lake in Alberta, Canada.

8 Air Maintenance Squadron

8 Air Maintenance Squadron is a Royal Canadian Air Force unit. Based at 8 Wing Trenton, it is responsible for supporting 424 Transport and Rescue Squadron, 436 Transport Squadron, 437 Transport Squadron, and 429 Transport Squadron, in their operational roles by performing second line maintenance on systems and components for the CC-130H, CC-130J, CC-150 and CC-177 aircraft respectively, as well as performing the "C-Check" preventive inspections on the CC-130J.

Army Cadet League of Canada

The Army Cadet League of Canada (ACLC; French: La ligue des cadets de l'Armée du Canada) is the civilian non-profit organization which works with the Department of National Defence (DND) to support the Royal Canadian Army Cadet program. It was founded in 1971 with a branch in every province and one for the northern region.

Canadian Army

The Canadian Army (Armée canadienne) is the ground force of Canada, and one of the three environmental commands of the Canadian Armed Forces, responsible for conventional land operations. As of 2024, it includes about 22,500 Regular Force personnel and 21,500 reservists, including 5,300 Canadian Rangers.

Canadian Expeditionary Force artillery from Prince Edward Island

A number of militia artillery batteries were raised in Prince Edward Island from 1875. When the First World War broke out, three battery-sized units were raised and deployed from the island as part of the Canadian Expeditionary Force.

Chief of the Defence Staff (Canada)

Chief of the Defence Staff (CDS; chef d'état-major de la Défense; CEMD) is the title of the professional head of the Canadian Armed Forces. As the senior military position, the CDS advises the Cabinet, particularly the minister of national defence and the prime minister.

Coastal Forces of the Royal Canadian Navy

The Coastal Forces of the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) was a specialized naval force of well-armed, small and fast motor launch (ML) and motor torpedo boat (MTB) flotillas, primarily crewed by members of the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve (RCNVR). Tasked with escort, coastal defence, anti-submarine, minesweeping and search and rescue duties, the Coastal Forces of the RCN contributed to securing Allied sea lines of communication off the coasts of Canada and Britain during the Second World War.

Department of National Defence (Canada)

The Department of National Defence (DND; Ministère de la Défense nationale) is the department of the Government of Canada which supports the Canadian Armed Forces in its role of defending Canadian national interests domestically and internationally. The department is a civilian organization, part of the public service, and supports the armed forces; however, as a civilian organization is separate and not part of the military itself.

Monarchy of Canada and the Canadian Armed Forces

The relationship between the Canadian Crown and the Canadian Armed Forces is both constitutional and ceremonial, with the King of Canada being the commander-in-chief of the Canadian Forces and he and other members of the Canadian royal family holding honorary positions in various branches and regiments, embodying the historical relationship of the Crown with its armed forces.

Navy League of Canada

The Navy League of Canada (Ligue navale du Canada) is a nonprofit organization founded in 1895 and incorporated in 1918. Originally formed to promote maritime issues to Canadians, the Navy League is the non-governmental partner of the Department of National Defence and supports the Royal Canadian Sea Cadets program.

No. 428 Squadron RCAF

No. 428 Squadron RCAF, also known as 428 Bomber Squadron, and 428 Ghost Squadron, was first a night bomber squadron of the Royal Canadian Air Force engaged in strategic bombing during World War II, based in Yorkshire. At the end of the war the squadron moved to Nova Scotia before being disbanded in September 1945.

Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry

Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI, generally referred to as the Patricia's) is one of the three Regular Force infantry regiments of the Canadian Army of the Canadian Armed Forces. Formed in 1914, it is named for Princess Patricia of Connaught, daughter of the then-Governor General of Canada.

Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division

The Royal Canadian Air Force Women's Division was a non-combatant element of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) which was active during the Second World War. The Women's Division's original role was to replace male air force personnel so that they would be available for combat-related duties.

1 Canadian Air Division

1 Canadian Air Division (1 Cdn Air Div) (1re Division aérienne du Canada) is the operational-level command and control formation of the Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF). Prior to 2006 the official abbreviation for the division was 1 CAD.

1 Service Battalion

1 Service Battalion (1 Svc Bn; 1er Bataillon des services) is a deployable field unit of the Canadian Forces. It provides second- and limited third-line combat service support to units throughout the 3rd Canadian Division.

100th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF

The 100th Battalion (Winnipeg Grenadiers), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force.

101st Battalion (Winnipeg Light Infantry), CEF

The 101st Battalion (Winnipeg Light Infantry), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 101st Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 29 June 1916, where, on 13 July 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 17th Reserve Battalion, CEF, to provide reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field.

104th Battalion, CEF

The 104th Battalion, CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 104th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Britain on 28 June 1916, where, on 18 July 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 47th Battalion, CEF, 17th Reserve Battalion, CEF and the 32nd Battalion, CEF to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

10th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA

The 10th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA is an artillery regiment of the Canadian Army Primary Reserve. Based in Regina, Saskatchewan, the regiment forms part of the 38 Canadian Brigade Group of the 3rd Canadian Division.

110th Battalion (Perth), CEF

The 110th Battalion (Perth), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 110th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 31 October 1916, where, on 2 January 1917, its personnel were absorbed by the 8th Reserve Battalion, CEF to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

111th Battalion (South Waterloo), CEF

The 111th Battalion (South Waterloo), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 111th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Britain on 25 September 1916, where, on 13 October 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 35th Battalion, CEF, to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

113th Battalion (Lethbridge Highlanders), CEF

The 113th Battalion (Lethbridge Highlanders), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 113th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 as part of a recruiting drive in which men from the same region could enlist and serve together.

114th Battalion (Haldimand), CEF

The 114th Battalion (Haldimand), CEF, also known as "Brock's Rangers," was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 114th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Britain on 31 October 1916 where, on 11 November 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 35th and 36th Reserve Battalions, CEF, to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

118th (North Waterloo) Battalion, CEF

The 118th (North Waterloo) Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.

146th Battalion, CEF

The 146th Battalion, CEF was a unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War.

15th Field Artillery Regiment (Canada)

15th Field Artillery Regiment, RCA, is a Primary Reserve Royal Canadian Artillery (RCA) regiment based in Vancouver, British Columbia, at the Bessborough Armoury. 15th Field Regiment is part of the 39 Canadian Brigade Group of 3rd Canadian Division.

16th Canadian Light Horse

The 16th Canadian Light Horse was a light cavalry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). First formed in 1905 as the 16th Mounted Rifles, the regiment was Redesignated in 1908 as the 16th Light Horse and again in 1920 as the 16th Canadian Light Horse.

196th Battalion (Western Universities), CEF

The 196th (Western Universities) Battalion, CEF was a numbered battalion in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Based in Winnipeg, Manitoba, the unit began recruiting during the winter of 1915/16 in universities throughout western Canada.

1st Canadian Ranger Patrol Group

The 1st Canadian Ranger Patrol Group (1 CRPG) is a patrol group of the Canadian Rangers.

24th Field Artillery Regiment (Canada)

The 24th Field Artillery Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery was a Canadian Army Reserve artillery regiment based in Trail, British Columbia. It was formed in 1936 when The Kootenay Regiment was converted from infantry to artillery.

259th Battalion, Canadian Rifles, CEF (Siberia)

The 259th Battalion, Canadian Rifles, CEF (Siberia), was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Siberian Expeditionary Force during the Great War.

26th Field Artillery Regiment (Canada)

The 26th Field Artillery Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery, is a Canadian Army Primary Reserve artillery regiment based in Brandon and Portage la Prairie, Manitoba. 71 Field Battery, Headquarters and Service Battery, and Regimental Headquarters are in Brandon, and 13 Field Battery is in Portage la Prairie.

2nd Field Artillery Regiment (Canada)

The 2nd Field Artillery Regiment, RCA (2e Régiment d'artillerie de campagne, ARC) is a Royal Canadian Artillery reserve regiment. It is located in Montreal and shares its headquarters with The Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal) at the Côte-des-Neiges Armory.

3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School

3 Canadian Forces Flying Training School (3 CFFTS; 3e École de pilotage des Forces canadiennes) is at the Southport Aerospace Centre just south of Portage la Prairie, Manitoba, Canada.

32 Canadian Brigade Group

32 Canadian Brigade Group (32 CBG) of the Canadian Army is part of the 2nd Canadian Division. It is centred on the Greater Toronto Area, as well as Niagara Region and Brantford. It is headquartered at LCol George Taylor Denison III Armoury in Toronto, Ontario.

32 Service Battalion

32 Service Battalion (32 Svc Bn) is a reserve combat service support (CSS) unit within the Canadian Army. The unit is formed under command of 32 Canadian Brigade Group in the 4th Canadian Division. The Service Battalion is composed of soldiers from the Corps of Royal Canadian Electrical and Mechanical Engineers and Royal Canadian Logistics Service to include: vehicle technicians, weapons technicians, cooks, financial service administrators, human resource administrators, material management technicians and mobile support equipment operators.

33rd Medium Artillery Regiment, RCA

The 33rd Medium Artillery Regiment, Royal Canadian Artillery was an artillery regiment of the Canadian Army Reserve based in Cobourg, Ontario. In 1965, the regiment was reduced to nil strength and placed on the Supplementary Order of Battle.

37 Canadian Brigade Group

37 Canadian Brigade Group (French: 37e Groupe-brigade du Canada) is a reserve component brigade of the Canadian Army, which supervises Militia units in 2nd Canadian Division for New Brunswick and Newfoundland and Labrador. It was created by merging the New Brunswick Militia District and the Newfoundland and Labrador Militia District.

39th Battalion, CEF

The 39th Battalion, CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War.

41st Battalion (French Canadian), CEF

The 41st Battalion (French Canadian), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF) during the Great War. Raised in 1914, it struggled to find enough French-speaking officers and men to fill its ranks.

430 Tactical Helicopter Squadron

430 Tactical Helicopter Squadron is a unit of the Canadian Forces under the Royal Canadian Air Force. It operates Bell CH-146 Griffons from CFB Valcartier, near Quebec City in Quebec, Canada.

5 Service Battalion

5 Service Battalion (5 Svc Bn), or 5e Bataillon des services (5 Bon Svc) in French, is a deployable field unit of the Canadian Forces. It provides second and limited third line Combat Service Support to units throughout 2nd Canadian Division (2 CA Div).

50th Battalion (Calgary), CEF

The 50th Battalion (Calgary), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 50th Battalion was authorized on 7 November 1914 and embarked for Britain on 27 October 1915. The battalion disembarked in France on 11 August 1916, where it fought as part of the 10th Canadian Infantry Brigade, 4th Canadian Division, in France and Flanders until the end of the war.

53rd Battalion (Northern Saskatchewan), CEF

The 53rd Battalion (Northern Saskatchewan), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 53rd Battalion was authorized on 7 November 1914 and embarked for Great Britain on 29 March 1916.

5th Field Regiment, RCA

The 5th Field Regiment, RCA was a Canadian field artillery unit active during World War II as part of the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division.

60th Battalion (Victoria Rifles of Canada), CEF

The 60th Battalion (Victoria Rifles of Canada), CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War.

63rd Battalion (Edmonton), CEF

The 63rd Battalion (Edmonton), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. The 63rd Battalion was authorized on 20 April 1915. During its recruitment phase the battalion sent three reinforcing drafts to England on 11 September 1915, 22 January and 2 March 1916.

64th Battalion, CEF

The 64th Battalion, CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 64th Battalion was authorized on 20 April 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 31 March 1916. The battalion provided reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field until 7 July 1916 when it ceased to function.

72nd Battalion (Seaforth Highlanders of Canada), CEF

The 72nd Battalion (The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada), CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during World War I, and recruited throughout the province of British Columbia.

73rd Battalion (Royal Highlanders of Canada), CEF

The 73rd Battalion (Royal Highlanders of Canada), CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 73rd Battalion (Royal Highlanders of Canada) organized in June 1915, initially commanded by Lieutenant-Colonel Peers Davidson, was placed on 'Active Service' as an 'Overseas Battalion', on 10 July 1915, as authorized in Militia General Orders.

77th Battalion (Ottawa), CEF

The 77th Battalion (Ottawa), CEF was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the Great War. The 77th Battalion was authorized on 10 July 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 19 June 1916. It provided reinforcements for the Canadian Corps until 22 September 1916, when its personnel were absorbed by the 47th Battalion (British Columbia), CEF and the 73rd Battalion (Royal Highlanders of Canada), CEF.

84th Battalion, CEF

The 84th Battalion, CEF was a battalion of the First World War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The battalion was authorized on 10 July 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 18 June 1916. There, on 30 June 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 73rd Battalion (Royal Highlanders of Canada), CEF, 75th Battalion (Mississauga), CEF and other units of the 4th Canadian Division, to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

86th (Machine Gun) Battalion, CEF

The 86th (Machine Gun) Battalion, CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, which was raised for overseas service during World War I. Authorized on December 22, 1915, the battalion embarked for Britain in May 1916.

870 Naval Air Squadron

870 Naval Air Squadron (870 NAS), also known as VF-870, was a squadron of the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN). It was formed when 803 Naval Air Squadron of the Royal Navy was renumbered to 870 NAS on 1 May 1951. It operated throughout the 1950s and early 1960s before disbanding on 7 September 1962.

89th Battalion (Alberta), CEF

The 89th Battalion (Alberta), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 89th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Britain on 2 June 1916, where its personnel were absorbed by the 9th Reserve Battalion, CEF, to provide reinforcements for the Canadian Corps in the field.

92nd Battalion (48th Highlanders), CEF

The 92nd Battalion (48th Highlanders), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 92nd Battalion was authorized on 30 July 1915 and embarked for Britain on 20 May 1916 where the battalion provided reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field until 24 January 1917, when its personnel were absorbed by the 5th Reserve Battalion, CEF.

99th Battalion (Essex), CEF

The 99th Battalion (Essex), CEF, was an infantry battalion of the Great War Canadian Expeditionary Force. The 99th Battalion was authorized on 22 December 1915 and embarked for Great Britain on 31 May 1916, where, on 6 July 1916, its personnel were absorbed by the 35th Reserve Battalion, CEF to provide reinforcements to the Canadian Corps in the field.

CANEX

The Canadian Forces Exchange System, or CANEX, is a commercial service of the Canadian Forces Morale and Welfare Services. First established in 1968, it is tasked with supporting the Canadian Forces operational effectiveness, contributing to morale, esprit de corps and unit cohesion.

Cadet Instructors Cadre

The Cadet Instructors Cadre (CIC; French: Cadre des instructeurs de cadets) consists of approximately 7,800 Canadian Forces (CF) officers.who fill various administrative and instructional roles in local cadet units, including Commanding Officer, Training Officer, Administration Officer, and Supply Officer.

Canadian Air Force (1920–1924)

The Canadian Air Force (CAF) was the initial, non-permanent peacetime air force formed by Canada after the First World War. When the Air Board was formed in 1919 to manage Canadian aviation, one of its responsibilities was air defence; the CAF was formed to meet this responsibility.

Canadian Airborne Regiment

The Canadian Airborne Regiment (Régiment aéroporté canadien) was a Canadian Forces formation created on April 8, 1968. It was not an administrative regiment in the commonly accepted Commonwealth of Nations sense, but rather a tactical formation manned from other regiments and branches.

Canadian Armed Forces

The Canadian Armed Forces (CAF; Forces armées canadiennes, FAC) are the unified military forces of Canada, including sea, land, air, and special operations forces commands referred to as the Royal Canadian Navy, Canadian Army, Royal Canadian Air Force, and Canadian Special Operations Forces Command. Under the National Defence Act, the Canadian Armed Forces are an entity separate and distinct from the Department of National Defence (the federal government department responsible for the administration and formation of defence policy), which also exists as the civilian support system for the forces.

Canadian Armed Forces Search and Rescue

Canadian Armed Forces Search and Rescue (CAFSAR; Recherche et sauvetage des Forces armées canadiennes) is the collective name used to refer to search and rescue (SAR) resources and operations within the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF). The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) and Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF) are jointly responsible for Canada’s SAR operations.

Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre

The Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre (CADTC) (French: Centre de doctrine et d'instruction de l'Armée canadienne), formerly the Land Force Doctrine and Training System (LFDTS), is a formation of the Canadian Army headquartered at McNaughton Barracks, CFB Kingston, Ontario. CADTC is the organization that is responsible for delivering army training and developing army doctrine.

Canadian Aviation Corps

The Canadian Aviation Corps (CAC) was an early attempt to create an air force for Canada at the beginning of the First World War. The unit was created in 1914 and was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force. The CAC had a maximum strength of three personnel and one aircraft which was delivered but never used.

Canadian Corps

The Canadian Corps was a World War I corps formed from the Canadian Expeditionary Force in September 1915 after the arrival of the 2nd Canadian Division in France. The corps was expanded by the addition of the 3rd Canadian Division in December 1915 and the 4th Canadian Division in August 1916.

Canadian Corps (World War II)

The unnumbered Canadian Corps was the first corps-level military formation established by the Canadian Army during the Second World War between late 1940 and mid-1942. A four-division Canadian Corps had existed during the First World War.

Canadian Expeditionary Force

The Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF; Corps expéditionnaire canadien) was the expeditionary field force of Canada during the First World War. It was formed on August 15, 1914, following Britain's declaration of war on the German Empire, with an initial strength of one infantry division.

Canadian Forces Military Police

The Canadian Forces Military Police Group (CFMP; French: Groupe de la Police militaire des Forces canadiennes) provides police, security and operational support services to the Canadian Armed Forces (CAF) and the Department of National Defence (DND) worldwide.

Canadian Forces National Investigation Service

The Canadian Forces National Investigation Service (CFNIS) is the investigative arm of the Canadian Forces Military Police. The CFNIS is an independent military police unit that provides an independent investigative capability for the purpose of fair and impartial administration of military justice.

Canadian Forces Small Arms Concentration

The Canadian Armed Forces Small Arms Concentration (CAFSAC) and the Canadian Army Skill at Arms Meeting (CASAM) is a series of shooting matches conducted annually by the Canadian Forces at the Connaught Ranges and Primary Training Centre, located near Shirley's Bay in Ottawa, Ontario. The matches were preceded by the Dominion of Canada Rifle Association (DCRA) National Service Arms Competition, also conducted annually at Connaught Ranges, and were the latest iteration of a series of Canadian shooting competitions dating back to 1869 until 2019.

Canadian Intelligence Corps

The Canadian Intelligence Corps (C Int C) is an administrative corps of the Canadian Army (CA); it includes all CA members of the Canadian Armed Forces' Intelligence Branch. Prior to the Unification of the Canadian Armed Forces in 1968, it enjoyed the same status as an administrative corps of the then Canadian Army.

Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre

The Canadian Manoeuvre Training Centre (CMTC) is the Canadian Army's functional centre of excellence (FCoE) for collective training (CT) and is the army CT training authority on behalf of its higher headquarters, the Canadian Army Doctrine and Training Centre (CADTC). It is housed by 3rd Canadian Division Support Base Detachment Wainwright, in Denwood, Alberta.

Canadian Militia

The Canadian Militia is a historical title for military units raised for the defence of Canada. The term has been used to describe sedentary militia units raised from local communities in Canada; as well as the regular army for the Province of Canada and post-confederated Canada, referred to as the active militias.

Canadian Rangers

The Canadian Rangers (Rangers canadiens) are a sub-component of the Canadian Army Reserve under Canadian Armed Forces reserves that provides a limited military presence in regions of Canada where stationing conventional Army units would not be practical or economically viable. Formally established on May 23, 1947, the Canadian Rangers employs around 5,000 Rangers.

Canadian Scottish Regiment (Princess Mary's)

The Canadian Scottish Regiment (Princess Mary's) is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army based on Vancouver Island in British Columbia.

Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men

Captain Runchey's Company of Coloured Men was a Canadian militia company of free blacks and indentured black servants, raised in Upper Canada as a small Black corps under a White officer, Robert Reuben Runchey (1759–1819), a tavern keeper from Jordan, Upper Canada. The unit fought in several actions during the early part of the Anglo-American War of 1812.

Carleton and York Regiment

The Carleton and York Regiment was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1954, the regiment was amalgamated with The New Brunswick Scottish and The North Shore (New Brunswick) Regiment to form the two battalions of The New Brunswick Regiment (later renamed as The Royal New Brunswick Regiment).

Ceremonial Guard (Canada)

The Ceremonial Guard (CG; Garde de cérémonie) is an ad hoc military unit in the Canadian Armed Forces that performs the changing the guard ceremony on Parliament Hill and posts sentries at Rideau Hall, with the National War Memorial being sentried by the National Sentry Program (NSP), which is carried out by different regiments and other units in order of precedence throughout the summer until mid-November.

Chief Petty Officer of the Navy

Command Chief Petty Officer of the Royal Canadian Navy is the title of the senior non-commissioned member in the Royal Canadian Navy.

Chief Warrant Officer of the Air Force

Royal Canadian Air Force Command Chief Warrant Officer (RCAF CCWO) is the title of the senior non-commissioned officer in the Royal Canadian Air Force.

Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force

Commander of the Royal Canadian Air Force (Commandant de l'Aviation royale canadienne) is the title of the institutional head of the Royal Canadian Air Force. This appointment also includes the title of Chief of the Air Force Staff (C Air Force; Chef d'état-major de la Force aérienne, CEMFA) and is based at National Defence Headquarters in Ottawa, Ontario.

Commander-in-Chief of the Canadian Armed Forces

The commander-in-chief of the Canadian Armed Forces (Commandant en chef des Forces armées canadiennes) exercises supreme command and control over Canada's military, the Canadian Armed Forces. Constitutionally, command-in-chief is vested in the Canadian monarch, currently.

Cumberland Highlanders

The Cumberland Highlanders was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1936, the regiment was amalgamated with the Colchester and Hants Regiment to form the North Nova Scotia Highlanders.

Ernest Harmon Air Force Base

Ernest Harmon Air Force Base is a former United States Air Force base located in Stephenville, Newfoundland and Labrador. The base was built by the United States Army Air Forces in 1941 under the Destroyers for Bases Agreement with the United Kingdom.

Fusiliers Mont-Royal

Les Fusiliers Mont-Royal is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. Founded in 1869, this francophone unit mobilized in 1885 to suppress the North-West Rebellion, and in the Second World War it raised an overseas battalion that fought in the Dieppe Raid and other campaigns in northwest Europe.

Fusiliers de Sherbrooke

Les Fusiliers de Sherbrooke is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. It is based in Sherbrooke, Quebec, with a sub-unit in Granby.

Grey and Simcoe Foresters

The Grey and Simcoe Foresters is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Forces. Within the Canadian Army, it is part of the 4th Canadian Division's (formerly known as Land Force Central Area) 32 Canadian Brigade Group.

HMCS Brunswicker

HMCS Brunswicker is a Canadian Forces Naval Reserve Division (NRD) located in Saint John, New Brunswick. Dubbed a stone frigate, HMCS Brunswicker is a land-based naval training establishment crewed by part-time sailors and also serves as a local recruitment centre for the Canadian Forces Naval Reserve and the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN).

HMCS Hunter

HMCS Hunter is a Canadian Forces Naval Reserve Division (NRD) located in Windsor, Ontario. Dubbed a stone frigate, HMCS Hunter is a land-based naval training establishment crewed by part-time sailors and also serves as a local recruitment centre for the Canadian Forces Naval Reserve.

HMCS Unicorn

HMCS Unicorn is a Canadian Forces Naval Reserve division (NRD) in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan. Dubbed a stone frigate, Unicorn is a land-based naval training establishment crewed by part-time sailors and also serves as a local recruitment centre for the Royal Canadian Navy (RCN).

History of the Canadian Army

The history of the Canadian Army, began when the title first came into official use in November 1940, during the Second World War, and is still used today. Although the official titles, Mobile Command, and later Land Force Command, were used from February 1968 to August 2011, "Canadian Army" continued to be unofficially used to refer to the ground forces of the Canadian Armed Forces, much as it has been from Confederation in 1867 to the present.

History of the Royal Canadian Air Force

The history of the Royal Canadian Air Force begins in 1914, with the formation of the Canadian Aviation Corps (CAC) that was attached to the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. It consisted of one aircraft that was never called into service.

History of the Royal Canadian Navy

The history of the Royal Canadian Navy goes back to 1910, when the naval force was created as the Naval Service of Canada and renamed a year later by King George V. The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) is one of the three environmental commands of the Canadian Forces.

II Canadian Corps

II Canadian Corps was a corps-level formation that, along with I (British) Corps (August 1, 1944, to April 1, 1945) and I Canadian Corps (April 6, 1943, to November 1943, and April 1, 1945, until the end of hostilities), comprised the First Canadian Army in Northwest Europe during World War II.

Lincoln and Welland Regiment

The Lincoln and Welland Regiment is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army based in St. Catharines, Ontario.

Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians)

Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians) (LdSH(RC)) is a regular armoured regiment of the Canadian Army. Currently based in Edmonton, Alberta, the regiment is part of 3rd Canadian Division's 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group.

Middlesex and Huron Regiment

The Middlesex and Huron Regiment was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). It was formed in 1936, as a result of the Amalgamation of The Middlesex Light Infantry and The Huron Regiment.

Military Ordinariate of Canada

The Military Ordinariate of Canada (Ordinariat militaire du Canada, Ordinariatus Militaris Canadensis) is a Latin Church military ordinariate of the Catholic Church.

Minister of Militia and Defence

The Minister of Militia and Defence was the federal government minister in charge of the volunteer army units in Canada, the Canadian Militia.

Naval Security Team

The Naval Security Team (NST; Équipe de sécurité navale; ESN) is a deployable and self-sustained Royal Canadian Navy (RCN) force protection unit established in 2016 tasked to augment the Canadian naval fleet's existing force protection assets in expeditionary or domestic environments.

New Brunswick Rangers

The New Brunswick Rangers was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1946, the regiment was amalgamated with The Saint John Fusiliers to form The South New Brunswick Regiment which was later renamed as The New Brunswick Scottish.

No. 113 Squadron RCAF

No. 113 (Bomber Reconnaissance) Squadron was a Royal Canadian Air Force squadron that was active during the Second World War. It was originally formed as an Army Co-operation squadron and then a fighter squadron before being disbanded in 1939 and then reformed in 1942.

No. 2 Air Navigation School RCAF

No. 2 Air Navigation School was a navigation training school in No. 3 Training Command RCAF, of the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan("BCATP"), flying Avro Anson's from RCAF Station Pennfield Ridge. It was opened on 21 July 1941 and closed on 30 April 1942.

No. 2 Construction Battalion

The No. 2 Construction Battalion, Canadian Expeditionary Force (CEF), was raised in Nova Scotia and was one of two predominantly Black battalions in Canadian military history and the only Canadian battalion composed of Black soldiers to serve in World War I. Commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Daniel Hugh Sutherland, formerly of the 193rd Battalion, CEF.

Origins of the Royal Canadian Navy

At the onset of Confederation in 1867, political planners in Canada and Great Britain realized that Canada had substantial maritime interests to protect. Boasting the fourth largest Merchant Marine in the world, and deriving the majority of its foreign capital through maritime trading should have been enough to persuade the Canadian government of the strategic importance of the seas.

Primary Reserve

The Primary Reserve of the Canadian Armed Forces (Première réserve des Forces canadiennes) is the first and largest of the four sub-components of the Canadian Armed Forces reserves, followed by the Supplementary Reserve, the Cadet Organizations Administration and Training Service (formerly the Cadet Instructors Cadre) and the Canadian Rangers.

Princess Louise Dragoon Guards

The Princess Louise Dragoon Guards was a heavy cavalry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). First formed in 1872 as an independent cavalry troop, in 1903 it became a full regiment.

Red Sash Home Guard (Canadian Militia)

The Red Sash Home Guard, also called the Missisquoi Home Guard, the Red Sash Guard, Dunham’s Red Sashes, or simply the Red Sashes (French: Écharpes Rouges) were a home guard and Canadian militia from Dunham, Quebec, which fought at the Battle of Eccles Hill during the Fenian raids on May 25, 1870.

Royal 22e Régiment

The Royal 22nd Regiment (R22R; Royal 22e Régiment) is an infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. Known colloquially in English as the Van Doos (representing an anglicized pronunciation of the French number twenty-two, vingt-deux) or in French as le Vingt-deuxième, the mostly francophone regiment comprises three Regular Force battalions, two Primary Reserve battalions, and a band, making it the largest regiment in the Canadian Army.

Royal Canadian Air Force

The Royal Canadian Air Force (RCAF; Aviation royale canadienne - ARC) is the air and space force of Canada. Its role is to "provide the Canadian Forces with relevant, responsive and effective airpower". The RCAF is one of three environmental commands.

Royal Canadian Army Cadets

The Royal Canadian Army Cadets (RCAC; Cadets royaux de l'Armée canadienne) is a national Canadian youth program sponsored by the Canadian Armed Forces and the civilian Army Cadet League of Canada. Under the authority of the National Defence Act, the program is administered by the Canadian Armed Forces and funded through the Department of National Defence.

Royal Canadian Medical Service

The Royal Canadian Medical Service (RCMS, Service de santé royal canadien) is a personnel branch of the Canadian Armed Forces, consisting of all members of medical occupations. Nearly all members of the RCMS, along with the members of the Royal Canadian Dental Corps (RCDC), are employed in the Canadian Forces Health Services Group (CF H Svcs Gp), an operational formation.

Royal Canadian Navy

The Royal Canadian Navy (RCN; Marine royale canadienne, MRC) is the naval force of Canada, and one of three environmental commands of the Canadian Armed Forces. The command's official strength includes 8,400 Regular Force sailors, 4,100 naval reservists, and a fleet that includes 25 commissioned warships and additional auxiliary vessels.

Royal Grenadiers

The Royal Grenadiers was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). The regiment was distinctive as it was one of only two regiments in the Canadian Army to be designated as a grenadier regiment (the other unit being The Winnipeg Grenadiers).

Royal Naval Canadian Volunteer Reserve

The Royal Naval Canadian Volunteer Reserve (RNCVR) was a naval reserve that was established in Canada in May 1914 and existed until 1923. Initially divided into three subdivisions stretching across the nation, the RNCVR could serve either with the Royal Canadian Navy or the Royal Navy during wartime.

Royal Regiment of Canada

The Royal Regiment of Canada is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. The regiment is based in Toronto, Ontario, and forms part of the 4th Canadian Division's 32 Canadian Brigade Group.

Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery

The Royal Regiment of Canadian Artillery (Le Régiment royal de l'Artillerie canadienne), formerly and commonly known as the Royal Canadian Artillery, is the artillery personnel branch of the Canadian Army.

Royal Regina Rifles

The Royal Regina Rifles is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. Prior to 1982 the regiment was known as The Regina Rifle Regiment. The regiment is part of 38 Canadian Brigade Group.

Régiment de la Chaudière

The Régiment de la Chaudière is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army. It is part of the 2nd Canadian Division's 35 Canadian Brigade Group and is headquartered at Lévis, Quebec.

Saskatchewan Border Regiment

The Saskatchewan Border Regiment was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). The regiment was created in 1924 in Estevan, Saskatchewan, from the reorganization of The South Saskatchewan Regiment into five separate regiments.

Saskatchewan Dragoons

The Saskatchewan Dragoons is a Primary Reserve armoured regiment of the Canadian Army. The unit is based in Moose Jaw. Their primary job is to assist the Regular Force in meeting Canada's military commitments. Their training and equipment closely follow that of the Regular Force, which the Reserves are called upon to assist increasingly often.

Saskatchewan Mounted Rifles

The Saskatchewan Mounted Rifles was a cavalry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). First formed in 1908 as the Saskatchewan Light Horse, the regiment was later redesignated that year as the 22nd Saskatchewan Light Horse and again in 1920 as The Saskatchewan Mounted Rifles.

Seaforth Highlanders of Canada

The Seaforth Highlanders of Canada is a Primary Reserve infantry regiment of the Canadian Army based in Vancouver, British Columbia. The regiment is subordinate to 39 Canadian Brigade Group, 3rd Canadian Division. Based at the Seaforth Armoury on Burrard Street in Vancouver, the regiment serves in both times of war and civil emergency, such as disaster relief after earthquakes or floods.

Snowbirds (aerobatic team)

The Snowbirds, officially known as 431 Air Demonstration Squadron (431e Escadron de démonstration aérienne), are the military aerobatics flight demonstration team of the Canadian Forces and its air command, the Royal Canadian Air Force. The team is based at 15 Wing Moose Jaw near Moose Jaw, Saskatchewan.

South Saskatchewan Regiment (1920–1924)

The South Saskatchewan Regiment was a short-lived infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1924, the regiment was reorganized and split up into 5 separate regiments.

Toronto 228th Battalion

The Toronto 228th Battalion (NHA) was an ice hockey team, composed entirely of troops in the 228th (Northern Fusiliers) Battalion of the Canadian Expeditionary Force, in the National Hockey Association (fore-runner to the modern NHL) for the 1916–17 season.

Uniforms of the Canadian Armed Forces

The uniforms of the Canadian Armed Forces are the official dress worn by members of Canada's military while on duty.

Victoria and Haliburton Regiment

The Victoria and Haliburton Regiment was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1936, the regiment was converted from infantry to artillery to become the 45th Field Battery RCA and now forms part of the 50th Field Artillery Regiment (The Prince of Wales Rangers), RCA (currently on the Supplementary Order of Battle).

Vimy Foundation

The Vimy Foundation is a charity focused on raising awareness of the role Canada played in World War I and the implications of Canada's success in the Battle of Vimy Ridge on April 9, 1917. The Vimy Foundation was founded in 1996 by John Andrew Powell (son of Ray Edwin Powell), with support from Sir Nicholas Bonsor.

West Nova Scotia Regiment

The West Nova Scotia Regiment is a line infantry regiment of the Canadian Army, part of the Primary Reserve, and is part of the 5th Canadian Division's 36 Canadian Brigade Group. The regiment recruits volunteers from the South-Western part of the province of Nova Scotia and has its headquarters at LFAATC Aldershot, near the community of Aldershot, Nova Scotia.

Winnipeg Grenadiers

The Winnipeg Grenadiers was an infantry regiment of the Canadian Army.

Winnipeg Light Infantry

The Winnipeg Light Infantry was an infantry regiment of the Non-Permanent Active Militia of the Canadian Militia (now the Canadian Army). In 1955, the regiment was amalgamated with the Royal Winnipeg Rifles.

XI Canadian Field Ambulance (Western Universities)

XI Canadian Field Ambulance (Western Universities) was a field ambulance unit in the Canadian Expeditionary Force during the First World War. Recruitment for the unit began during the winter of 1915/16 in universities throughout western Canada.

Yukon

Yukon is a territory of Canada, bordering British Columbia to the south, the Northwest Territories to the east, the Beaufort Sea to the north, and the U.S. state of Alaska to the west. It is Canada's westernmost and smallest territory by land area. third quarter estimates Yukon had a population of 50,356, the most of the territories.

See also

• Bibliography of Canada
• List of Canada-related topics by provinces and territories
• Outline of Canada

Notes

Public Domain This article incorporates content that is under an open licence from Statistics Canada (FAQ)

External links

Government

• Official website of the Government of Canada
• Governor General of Canada, as Head of State
• Prime Minister of Canada, as Head of Government
• King and Queen's website, as Chief of State
• Global Affairs Canada, Foreign Affairs
• National Parliament

Statistics

• Statistics Canada, Canada's national statistical agency

Travel

• Canada's official website for travel and tourism